\documentclass[12pt,a4paper,twoside]{report}
\usepackage{typebook}
\begin{document}
\title{Formatting information}
\subtitle{A beginner's introduction to typesetting with
      \LaTeX{}}
\author{Peter Flynn}
\date{v.3.6 March 2005}
\legal{%
This document is Copyright © 1999\ndash{}2005 by
        Silmaril Consultants under the terms of what is now the GNU
        Free Documentation License (copyleft).

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify
        this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation
        License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the
        Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no
        Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the
        license is included in the section entitled \titlecite{gnufdl}.

You are allowed to distribute, reproduce, and modify it
        without fee or further requirement for consent subject to the
        conditions in \S\thinspace\ref{gfdl-4}. The author has
        asserted his right to be identified as the author of this
        document. If you make useful modifications you are asked to
        inform the author so that the master copy can be updated. See
        the full text of the License in Appendix~\ref{gfdl}.
      
}\maketitle
\subsubsection*{Acknowledgments}
This edition of  \textsl{Formatting
	  Information} was prompted by the generous help I
	have received from \TeX{} users too numerous to mention
	individually. Shortly after TUGboat published the November
	2003 edition, I was reminded by a spate of email of the
	fragility of documentation for a system like \LaTeX{} which is
	constantly under development. There have been revisions to
	packages; issues of new distributions, new tools, and new
	interfaces; new books and other new documents; corrections to
	my own errors; suggestions for rewording; and in one or two
	cases mild abuse for having omitted package X which the author
	felt to be indispensable to users.\par 
I am grateful as always to the people who sent me
	corrections and suggestions for improvement. Please keep them
	coming: only this way can this booklet reflect what people
	want to learn. The same limitation still applies, however: no
	mathematics, as there are already a dozen or more excellent
	books on the market\mdash{}as well as other online
	documents\mdash{}dealing with mathematical typesetting in
        \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} in finer and better detail than I am
	capable of.\par 
The structure remains the same, but I have revised and
	rephrased a lot of material, especially in the earlier
	chapters where a new user cannot be expected yet to have
	acquired any depth of knowledge. Many of the screenshots have
	been updated, and most of the examples and code fragments have
	been retested.\par 
As I was finishing this edition, I was asked to review
	an article for \titlecite{practex}, which
	grew out of the Practical \TeX{} Conference in 2004. The
	author specifically took the writers of documentation to task
	for failing to explain things more clearly, and as I read
	more, I found myself agreeing, and resolving to clear up some
	specific problems areas as far as possible. It is very
	difficult for people who write technical documentation to
	remember how they struggled to learn what has now become a
	familiar system. So much of what we do is second nature, and a
	lot of it actually has nothing to do with the software, but
	more with the way in which we view and approach information,
	and the general level of knowledge of computing. If I have
	obscured something by making unreasonable assumptions about
	\emph{your} knowledge, please let me know so
	that I can correct it.\par 
\par\vspace*{2pc}\noindent\ignorespaces 
Peter Flynn is author of \titleof{htmlbook} and \titleof{sgmltools}, and editor of \titleof{xmlfaq}.
\par\vfill
\subsubsection*{Technical~note}
The text is written and
      maintained in DocBook with a customization layer for
      typographics. XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} is used to generate
      HTML\index{HTML@HTML} (for the Web and plain-text
      versions) and \LaTeX{} (for PDF\index{PDF@PDF} and
      PostScript\index{PostScript}). The November 2003 edition
      was published in \titlecite{tugboat}. This edition contains extensive
      revisions and simplifications to the text, and many corrections
      to the way in which the packages and their capabilities are
      presented.\par\vfill
\renewcommand{\contentsname}{Contents}
\tableofcontents
\listofexercises
\listoftables
\prelim{Introduction}\label{intro}

This book originally accompanied a 2-day course on using the
      \LaTeX{} typesetting system. It has been extensively revised and
      updated and can now be used for self-study or in the classroom.
      It is aimed at users of Linux, Macintosh, or Microsoft Windows
      but it can be used with \LaTeX{} systems on any platform,
      including other Unix workstations, mainframes, and even your
      Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)\index{PDA@PDA|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PDA@PDA|textbf}.
\subsection*{Who needs this book?}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Who needs this book?}

The audience for the original training course was assumed
        to be computer-literate and composed of professional,
        business, academic, technical, or administrative computer
        users. The readers of the book (you) are mostly assumed to be
        in a similar position, but may also come from many other
        backgrounds, including hobbyists, students, and just people
        interested in quality typesetting. You are expected to have
        one or more of the following or similar objectives:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
producing typesetter-quality formatting;

\item 
formatting long, complex, highly-structured,
            repetitive, or automatically-generated
            documents;\footnote{\LaTeX{} can easily be used for once-off or short
                and simple documents as well, but its real strengths
                lie in consistency and automation.}

\item 
saving time and effort by automating common
            tasks;

\item 
achieving or maintaining your independence from
            specific makes or models of proprietary hardware,
            software, or file formats (portability);

\item 
using Open Source software (free of restrictions,
            sometimes also free of charge).

\end{itemize}
\subsection*{Skills needed}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Skills needed}

\LaTeX{} is a very easy system to learn, and requires no
        specialist knowledge, although literacy and some familiarity
        with the publishing process is useful. It is, however, assumed
        that you are completely fluent and familiar with using your
        computer before you start. Specifically, effective use of this
        document requires that you already know and understand the
        following very thoroughly:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
how to use a good plain-text
            editor (\emph{not} a wordprocessor like
            \product{OpenOffice},
            \product{WordPerfect}, or Microsoft
            \product{Word}, and
            \emph{not} a toy like Microsoft
            \product{Notepad});\marginal{
2.1.3
}

\item 
where to find all 95 of the printable ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} characters on your keyboard and
            what they mean, and how to type accents and symbols, if
            you use them;\marginal{
3.2.1.2
}

\item 
how to create, open, save,
            close, rename, move, and delete files and folders
            (directories);\marginal{
2.3
}

\item 
how to use a Web browser and/or File
            Transfer Protocol (FTP)\index{FTP@FTP|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!FTP@FTP|textbf} program to
            download and save files from the Internet;\marginal{
7.3.1.6
}

\item 
how to uncompress and unwrap (unzip or detar)
            downloaded files.\marginal{
2.3.7
}

\end{itemize}

If you don't know how to do
        these things yet, it's important to go and learn them
        first. Trying to become familiar with the fundamentals of
        using a computer \emph{at the same time} as
        learning \LaTeX{} is not likely to be as effective as doing
        them in order.

These are not specialist
	skills\mdash{}they are all included in the European Computer Driving
	  Licence (ECDL)\index{ECDL@ECDL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!ECDL@ECDL|textbf} and the relevant sections of the ECDL\index{ECDL@ECDL} syllabus are noted in the margin
	above, so they are well within the capability of anyone who
	uses a computer.
\subsection*{Objectives of this book}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Objectives of this book}

By the end of this book, you should be able to undertake
        the following tasks:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
use a plain-text editor to create and maintain your
            documents;

\item 
add \LaTeX{} markup to identify
            your document structure and formatting
            requirements;

\item 
typeset \LaTeX{} documents, correct simple formatting
            errors, and display or print the results;

\item 
identify, install, and use additional packages (using
            CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} for downloading where
            necessary);

\item 
recognise the limitations of procedural markup systems
            and choose appropriate generic markup methods where
            appropriate.

\end{itemize}
\subsection*{Synopsis}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Synopsis}

The original course covered the following topics as
        separate sessions, which are represented in the book as
        chapters:
\begin{enumerate}\item 
Where to get and how to install
            \LaTeX{} (\product{te\TeX{}},
            \product{fp\TeX{}}, or
            \product{pro\TeX{}t} from the
            \TeX{} Collection disks);\index{texlive@ Live}\index{texcollection@ Collection}

\item 
How to type \LaTeX{} documents:
            using an editor to create files
            (\product{WinShell},
            \product{WinEdt},
            \product{\TeX{}nicCenter}, or
            \product{Emacs});

\item 
Basic structures (the Document Class Declaration and
            its layout options; the document environment with sections
            and paragraphs);

\item 
Typesetting, viewing, and printing;

\item 
The use of packages and CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}
            to adapt formatting using standard tools;

\item 
Other document structures (lists, tables, figures,
            images, and verbatim text);

\item 
Textual tools (footnotes, marginal notes,
            cross-references, indexes and glossaries, and
            bibliographic citations);

\item 
Typographic considerations (white-space and typefaces;
            inline markup and font changes; extra font installation
            and automation);

\item 
Programmability and automation (macros and modifying
            \LaTeX{}'s behaviour);

\item 
Conversion and compatibility with other systems
            (XML\index{XML@XML},
            \product{Word}, etc.).

\end{enumerate}

A few changes have been made in the transition to printed
        and online form, but the basic structure is the same, and the
        document functions as a workbook for the course as well as a
        standalone self-teaching guide.
\subsection*{Where's the math?}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Where's the math?}

It is important to note that
        the document \emph{does not cover} mathematical
        typesetting, complex tabular material, the design of
        large-scale macros and document classes, or the finer points
        of typography or typographic design, although it does refer to
        these topics in passing on a few occasions.
\index{mathematics}
There are several other guides, introductions, and
	`get-started' documents on the Web and
	on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} which cover these topics and
	more. Among the more popular are:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
\titlecite{begin}, where all
            beginners should start;

\item 
\titlecite{lshort} is a good
            beginner's tutorial;

\item 
\titlecite{gentle} is a classic
            tutorial on Plain \TeX{};

\item 
\titlecite{imported} shows you how
            to do (almost) anything with graphics: side-by-side,
            rotated, etc.;

\item 
\titlecite{mathguide} gets you
            started with the American Math Society's powerful
            packages;

\item 
\titlecite{symbol-list} shows over
            2,500 symbols available.

\end{itemize}

This list was taken from the
        CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} search page. There are also
        lots of books published about \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}: the most
        important of these for users of this document are listed in
        the last paragraph of the Foreword on p.\thinspace\pageref{docs}.
\subsection*{Availability of \LaTeX{} systems}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Availability of \LaTeX{} systems}\label{availability}

Because the \TeX{} program (the
	`engine' which actually does the
	typesetting) is separate from whichever editor you choose,
	\TeX{}-based systems are available in a variety of different
	modes using different interfaces, depending on how you want to
	use them.
\subsubsection*{Graphical interface}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Graphical interface}\label{gui}

The normal way to run \LaTeX{} is
          to use a toolbar button (icon), a menu item, or a keystroke
          in your editor. Click on it and your document gets saved and
          typeset. All the other features of \LaTeX{} systems (the
          typeset display, spellchecker, related programs like
          \product{makeindex} and \BibTeX{}) are run
          the same way. This works both in a normal Graphical User Interface (GUI)\index{GUI@GUI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!GUI@GUI|textbf} as well as in
          text-only interfaces.

In the popular \LaTeX{} editors like
          \product{Emacs},
          \product{\TeX{}shell},
          \product{\TeX{}nicCenter},
          \product{WinShell}, or
          \product{WinEdt}, a record of the
          typesetting process is shown in an adjoining window so that
          you can see the progress of pages being typeset, and any
          errors or warnings that may occur.\footnote{Recent versions of some editors hide this display by
              default unless errors occur in the typesetting.}
\subsubsection*{Command-line interface}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Command-line interface}\label{cli}

However, the graphical interface
          is useless if you want to run \LaTeX{} unattended, as part of an
          automated system, perhaps in a web server or e-commerce
          environment, where there is no direct connection between
          user and program. The underlying \TeX{} engine does in fact
          have a Command-Line Interface (CLI)\index{CLI@CLI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CLI@CLI|textbf},
          that is, it can be used as a
          `console' program which you run from
          a standard Unix or Mac terminal or shell window (or from an
          MS-DOS command window in Microsoft Windows systems) by
          typing the command
          \verb+latex+ followed by the name of your
          document file (see Figure~\ref{clidemo} in \S\thinspace\ref{cmdwin} for an example).

Commands like these let you run \LaTeX{} in an automated
	  environment like a
	  Common Gateway Interface (CGI)\index{CGI@CGI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CGI@CGI|textbf} script
	  on a web server or a batch file on a document system. All
	  the popular distributions for Unix and Windows, both free
	  and commercial, include this interface as standard
	  (te\TeX{}, fp\TeX{}, MiK\TeX{}, pro\TeX{}t,
	  PC-\TeX{}, True\TeX{},
	  etc.).
\subsubsection*{Typeset displays}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Typeset displays}\label{displays}

\LaTeX{} usually displays your
          typeset results in a separate window, redisplayed
          automatically every time the document is reprocessed,
          because the typesetting is done separately from the editing.
          Some systems, however, can format the typesetting while you
          type, at the expense of some flexibility.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Asynchronous typographic displays]\label{async}
This method is called an \textbf{\textit{asynchronous typographic
                  display}}\label{asynchronous}\index{asynchronous typographic
                  display@\textbf{\textit{asynchronous typographic
                  display}}} because the typeset window only
                updates \emph{after} you have typed
                something and reprocessed it, not
                \emph{while} you are still typing, as it
                would with a wordprocessor.\footnote{Among other reasons, \TeX{} typesets whole
                    paragraphs at a time, not line-by-line as lesser
                    systems do, in order to get the hyphenation and
                    justification (H\amp J) right (see \S\thinspace\ref{handj}).
                  }
\item[\sffamily Synchronous typographic displays]\label{sync}
\label{synchro}%
Some distributions of \LaTeX{}
                offer a \textbf{\textit{synchronous
                typographic interface}}\label{synchronous}\index{synchronous
                typographic interface@\textbf{\textit{synchronous
                typographic interface}}}. In these, you type
                directly into the typographic display, as with a
                wordprocessor. Three popular examples are
                \product{Textures},
                \product{Scientific Word}, and
                \product{V\TeX{}} (see table below).
                At least one free version (\LyX{}, see Figure~\ref{lyxwin} in \S\thinspace\ref{editors})
                offers a similar interface.

With a synchronous display
                you get Instant Textual Gratification\texttrademark{}, but your
                level of control is restricted to that of the GUI\index{GUI@GUI} you use, which cannot provide
                access to everything that \LaTeX{} can do. For
                complete control of the formatting
                you may still need access to your normal source
                (input) file in the same way as for asynchronous
                implementations.
\item[\sffamily Near-synchronous displays]
There are several other
                methods available free for Unix and some other systems
                for close-to-synchronous updates of the typeset
                display (including \person{Jonathan Fine}'s \product{Instant
                  Preview} and the \TeX{} daemon), and
                for embedding typographic fragments from the typeset 
                display back into the editor window (\person{David Kastrup}'s \package{preview-latex}
                package).
\end{description}
\subsubsection*{Commercial distributions}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Commercial distributions}\label{commercial}

Whatever method you choose, the
          \TeX{} Collection CD and CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} are
	  not the only source of software. The vendors listed in Table~ offer excellent commercial
	  implementations of \TeX{} and \LaTeX{},
	  and if you are in a position where their enhanced support
	  and additional features are of benefit, I urge you to
	  support them. In most cases their companies, founders, and
	  staff have been good friends of the \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}
	  communities for many years.\index{commercial implementations}
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Popular commercial implementations of \TeX{} systems}
\label{vendors}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}p{.65in}p{1in}>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{.9in}l@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Product}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Platform}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Company}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape URI}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
PC\TeX{}&MS-Windows&Personal \TeX{}, Inc&\url+www.pctex.com/+\\
True\TeX{}&MS-Windows&True \TeX{}&\url+truetex.com/+\\
Textures&Apple Mac&Blue Sky Research&\url+www.bluesky.com/+\\
Scientific Word&MS-Windows&Mackichan Software&\url+www.mackichan.com/+\\
V\TeX{}&MS-Windows, Linux, OS/2&MicroPress, Inc&\url+www.micropress-inc.com/+\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\subsection*{Production note}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Production note}\label{prodnote}

This document is written and maintained in XML\index{XML@XML}, using a customized version of the
        \product{DocBook} DTD\index{DTD@DTD}. Conversions were made to HTML\index{HTML@HTML} and \LaTeX{} using XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} scripts and \person{Michael Kay}'s \product{Saxon}
        processor.

The complete source, with all ancillary files, is
        available online at \url+http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/beginlatex/src/+
        but if you want to try processing it yourself you must install
        \product{Java} (from Sun, IBM\index{IBM@IBM}, or a number of
        others) and \product{Saxon} (from \url+http://saxon.sourceforge.net/+), in addition
        to \LaTeX{}.

This document is published under the terms and conditions
        of the GNU\index{GNU@GNU} Free Documentation
        License. Details are in Appendix~\ref{gfdl}.
\clearpage\subsection*{Symbols and conventions}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Symbols and conventions}\label{symbols}

The following typographic notations are used:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\label{symboltable}
\begin{tabular}{@{}lp{3.5in}@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Notation}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\command{command}&Control sequences which perform an
                  action, e.g. \command{newpage}\\
\length{length}&Control sequences which store a dimension
                (measurement in units), e.g. \length{parskip}\\
\counter{counter}&Values used for counting (whole numbers, as
                opposed to measuring in units), e.g. \counter{secnumdepth}\\
\textbf{\textit{term}}\label{term}\index{term@\textbf{\textit{term}}}&Defining instance of a
                  new term\\
\env{environment}&A \LaTeX{} formatting environment\\
\package{package}&A \LaTeX{} package (available from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN})\\
\product{product}&Program or product name\\
\verb+typewriter type+&Examples of source code (stuff you
                  type)\\
{\ttfamily{}\selectfont{}\uline{mybook}} or {\ttfamily{}\fontshape{sl}\selectfont{}value}&Mnemonic examples of
                things you have to supply real-life values for\\
\key{x}&A key on your keyboard\\
\key{Ctrl}--\key{x}~&Two keys pressed together\\
\key{Esc}\thinspace{}\key{q}&Two keys pressed one after another\\
\guiicon{Submit}&On-screen button to click\\
\menuitem{Menu}{Item}&Drop-down menu with items\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
Examples of longer fragments of input are shown with a
        border round them. Where necessary, the formatted output is
        shown immediately beneath. Warnings are shown with a shaded
        background. Exercises are shown with a double border.
\prelim{Foreword}\label{foreword}

As noted in the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{intro},
      this document accompanies a two-day introductory training course.
      It became obvious from repeated questions in class and
      afterwards, as well as from general queries on \url+comp.text.tex+ that many people do
      not read the FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ}s, do not use the
      TUG\index{TUG@TUG} web site, do not buy the books and
      manuals, do not use the newsgroups and mailing lists, and do not
      download the free documentation. Instead, they try to get by
      using the training technique known as `sitting by
        Nelly', which involves looking over a
      colleague's shoulder in the office, lab, library, pub, or
      classroom, and absorbing all his or her bad habits.

In the summer of 2001 I presented a short proposal on the
      marketing of \LaTeX{} to the annual conference of the \TeX{} Users
      Group held at the University of Delaware, and showed an example
      of a draft 
        brochure\footnote{\url+http://www.silmaril.ie/documents/latex-brochure/leaflet.pdf+} designed to persuade newcomers to try \LaTeX{}
      for their typesetting requirements. As a result of questions and
      suggestions, it was obvious that it needed to include a pointer
      to some documentation, and I agreed to make available a revised
      form of this document, expanded to be used outside the
      classroom, and to include those topics on which I have had most
      questions from users over the years.

It turned out to mean a significant
      reworking of a lot of the material. Some of it appears in almost
      every other manual and book on \LaTeX{} but it is essential to
      the beginner and therefore bears repetition. Some of it appears
      other forms elsewhere, and is included here because it needs
      explaining better. And some of it appears nowhere else but this
      document. I took the opportunity to revise the structure of the
      training course in parallel with the book (expanding it from its
      original one day to two days), and to include a more
      comprehensive index. It is by no means perfect (in both senses),
      and I would be grateful for comments and corrections to be sent
      to me at the address given under the credits.

I had originally hoped that the \LaTeX{} version of the
      document would be processable by any freshly-installed default
      \LaTeX{} system, but the need to include font samples which go
      well beyond the default installation, and to use some packages
      which the new user is unlikely to have installed, means that
      this document itself is not really a simple piece of \LaTeX{},
      however simply it may describe the process itself.

However, as the careful reader will have already noticed,
      the master source of the document is not maintained in \LaTeX{}
      but in XML\index{XML@XML}. A future task is therefore
      to compare the packages required with those installed by
      default, and flag portions of the document requiring additional
      features so that an abbreviated version can be generated which
      can be guaranteed to process even with a basic \LaTeX{}
      installation.

\label{docs}%
If you are just starting with \LaTeX{}, at an early
      opportunity you should buy or borrow a copy of \titlecite{latexbook} which is the original
      author's manual. More advanced users should get the
      \titlecite{companion} or one of its
      successors. In the same series there are also the \titlecite{graphicscomp} and the \titlecite{webcomp}. Mathematical users might want to
      read \titlecite{mathguide}.
\prelim{Preface}\label{preface}

Many people discover \LaTeX{} after
      years of struggling with wordprocessors and desktop publishing
      systems, and are amazed to find that \TeX{} has been around for
      over 25 years and they hadn't heard of it. It's not a
      conspiracy, just `a well-kept secret known only to a few
        million people', as one anonymous user has put
      it.

Perhaps a key to why it has remained
      so popular is that it removes the need to fiddle with the
      formatting while you write. Although playing around with fonts
      and formatting is attractive to the newcomer, it is completely
      counter-productive for the serious author or editor who wants to
      concentrate on \emph{writing}\mdash{}ask any
      journalist or professional writer.

A few years ago a new \LaTeX{} user expressed concern on
      the \url+comp.text.tex+ newsgroup about
      `learning to write in \LaTeX{}'. Some 
        excellent advice\footnote{\url+news:comp.text.tex/MPG.18d82140d65ddc5898968c@news.earthlink.net+} was posted in response to this query,
      which I reproduce with permission below [the bold text is my
      emphasis]:
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup \ttfamily\raggedright\setlength{\spaceskip}{.375em}\noindent 
No, the harder part might be \emph{writing},
        period.  \TeX{}/\LaTeX{} is actually easy, once you relax and
        stop worrying about appearance as a be-all-and-end-all. Many
        people have become `Word Processing
          Junkies' and \emph{\textbf{no longer
          `write' documents, they
          `draw' them}}, almost at the
        same level as a pre-literate 3-year old child might pretend to
        `write' a story, but is just creating a
        sequence of pictures with a pad of paper and box of
        \product{Crayola}s\mdash{}this is perfectly
        normal and healthy in a 3-year old child who is being
        creative, but is of questionable usefulness for, say, a grad
        student writing a Master's or PhD thesis or a business
        person writing a white paper, etc.  For this reason,
        \emph{I} strongly recommend
        \emph{not} using any sort of fancy GUI\index{GUI@GUI} `crutch'.
        Use a plain vanilla text editor and treat it like an
        old-fashioned typewriter.  Don't waste time playing with
        your mouse.

Note: I am \emph{not} saying that you should
        have no concerns about the appearance of your document, just
        that you should \emph{write} the document
        (completely) first and tweak the appearance
        later\dots \emph{not} [spend time on] lots of
        random editing in the bulk of the document itself.
\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent [\citeauthortitleyear{heller}]\end{quotation}

Learning to write well can be hard, but authors shouldn't
      have to make things even harder for themselves by using
      manually-driven systems which break their concentration every
      few seconds for some footling adjustment to the appearance,
      simply because the software is incapable of doing it right by
      itself.

\label{mathtex}%
\person{Don Knuth} originally wrote \TeX{} to typeset mathematics for
      the second edition of his master-work \titlecite{aocs}, and it remains pretty much the only
      typesetting program to include fully-automated mathematical
      formatting done the way mathematicians want it. But he also
      published a booklet called \titlecite{mathwrite} which shows how
      important it is to think about what you write, and how the
      computer should be able to help, not hinder.

And \TeX{} is much more than math:
      it's a programmable typesetting system which can be used
      for almost any formatting task, and \LaTeX{} has made it usable by
      almost anyone. Professor Knuth generously placed the entire system in the
      public domain, so for many years there was no publicity of the
      commercial kind which would have got \TeX{} noticed outside the
      technical field.

Nowadays, however, there are many companies
      selling \TeX{} software or services,\footnote{See, for example, the list of \TeX{} vendors on p.\thinspace\pageref{vendors}, and the list of consultants
          published by TUG\index{TUG@TUG}.} dozens
      of publishers accepting \LaTeX{} documents for
      publication, and hundreds of thousands of users using \LaTeX{}
      for millions of documents.\footnote{A guesstimate. With free software it's impossible
          to tell how many people are using it, but it's a
          \emph{lot}.}

To count yourself as a \TeX{} or \LaTeX{} user, visit the
      \TeX{} Users Group's
      `\TeX{} Counter' web site\footnote{\url+http://www.tug.org/tex/counter/+} 
      (and get a nice certificate!).

There is occasionally some confusion among newcomers between
      the two main programs, \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
\TeX{} is a typesetting program, originally written by
          Prof Knuth at Stanford around 1978. It implements a
          macro-driven typesetters' programming language of some
          300 basic operations and it has formed the core of many
          other desktop publishing (DTP)\index{DTP@DTP|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DTP@DTP|textbf}
          systems. Although it is still possible to write in the raw
          \TeX{} language, you need to study it in depth, and you need
          to be able to write macros (subprograms) to perform even the
          simplest of repetitive tasks.

\item 
\LaTeX{} is a user interface for \TeX{}, designed by
          \person{Leslie  Lamport} at Digital Equipment
            Corporation (DEC)\index{DEC@DEC|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DEC@DEC|textbf} in 1985 to automate all the common
          tasks of document preparation.  It provides a simple way for
          authors and typesetters to use the power of \TeX{} without
          having to learn the underlying language. \LaTeX{} is the
          recommended system for all users except professional
          typographic programmers and computer scientists who want to
          study the internals of \TeX{}.

\end{itemize}

Both \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} have been
      constantly updated since their inception.  Knuth has now frozen
      development of the \TeX{} engine so that users and developers
      can have a virtually bug-free, rock-stable platform to work
      with\footnote{Knuth still fixes bugs, although the chances of finding
          a bug in \TeX{} these days approaches zero.}. Typographic programming development continues with
      the New Typesetting System (NTS)\index{NTS@NTS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!NTS@NTS|textbf}, planned
      as a successor to \TeX{}. The \LaTeX{}3 project has taken over
      development of \LaTeX{}, and the current version is
      \LaTeXe{}, which is what we are concentrating on here. Details
      of all developments can be had from the TUG\index{TUG@TUG} at \url+http://www.tug.org+
\begin{sidebar}\label{myths}
\subsection*{Debunking the mythology}
Naturally, over all the years, a few myths have grown up
        around \LaTeX{}, often propagated by people who should know
        better. So, just to clear up any potential
        misunderstandings\dots 
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} has only got one
              font']
Most \LaTeX{} systems can use any OpenType,
              TrueType, Adobe (PostScript\index{PostScript})
              Type1 or Type3, or \mf{} font. This is more than
              most other known typesetting system.
              \LaTeX{}'s default font is Computer Modern (based
              on Monotype Series 8: see
              the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{fontable-mf}), not Times Roman, and some
              people get upset because it `looks
                different' to Times. Typefaces differ:
              that's what they're for\mdash{}get used to it.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} isn't WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG}']
Simply not true. DVI\index{DVI@DVI}
              and PDF\index{PDF@PDF} preview is better
              WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG} than any wordprocessor
              and most DTP\index{DTP@DTP} systems. What
              people mean is that \LaTeX{}'s typographic display
              is asynchronous with the edit window. This is only true
              for the default CLI\index{CLI@CLI}
              implementations. See the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{synchro} for details of synchronous
              versions.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} is obsolete']
Quite the opposite: it's under constant
              development, with new features being added almost
              weekly. Check the \url+comp.text.tex+ for messages about recent
              uploads to CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}. It's
              arguably more up-to-date than most other systems:
              \LaTeX{} had the Euro (\EUR{}) before anyone else, it had
              Inuktitut typesetting before the Inuit got their own
              province in Canada, and it still produces better
              mathematics than anything else.
\end{description}
\end{sidebar}\begin{sidebar}\label{myths2}
\subsection*{More mythology}\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} is a Unix system']
People are also heard saying:
              `\LaTeX{} is a Windows system',
              `\LaTeX{} is a Mac system', etc.,
              etc. \emph{ad nauseam}.
              \TeX{} systems run on almost every computer in use, from
              some of the biggest supercomputers down to handhelds
              (PDA\index{PDA@PDA}s like the Sharp
              \product{Zaurus}). That includes
              Windows and Linux PCs, Macs, and all other Unix systems.
              If you're using something \TeX{} doesn't run
              on, it must be either incredibly new, incredibly old, or
              unbelievably obscure.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} is ``too
                difficult''\thinspace']
This has been heard from
              physicists who can split atoms; from mathematicians who
              can explain why \(\pi\) exists; from business people who can
              read a balance sheet; from historians who can grasp
              Byzantine politics; from librarians who can understand
              LoC and MARC; and from linguists who can decode Linear
              `B'. It's nonsense: most people grasp
              \LaTeX{} in 20 minutes or so. It's not rocket
              science (or if it is, I know any number of unemployed
              rocket scientists who will teach it to you).
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} is ``only for
                scientists and
                mathematicians''\thinspace']
Untrue. Although it grew up
              in the mathematical and computer science fields, two of
              its biggest growth areas are in the humanities and
              business, especially since the rise of XML\index{XML@XML} brought new demands for automated
              web-based typesetting.
\end{description}
\end{sidebar}\chapter{Installing \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}}
\label{get}
\pagenumbering{arabic}
\index{tetex@te}\index{fptex@fp}\index{texniccenter@nicCenter}\index{miktex@MiK}\index{Linux}\index{Unix}\index{Microsoft Windows}\index{Mac OS X}\index{Apple Mac}\index{OS X}
This course is based on using one of
      the following distributions of \TeX{} on the 2004 \TeX{}
      Collection DVD or the 2003 \TeX{} Live CD:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily te\TeX{}]
for Linux and other Unix-like systems, including Mac
            OS\thinspace{}X (\person{Thomas Esser});
\item[\sffamily pro\TeX{}t]
for Microsoft Windows (\person{Thomas Feuerstack}), based on \person{Christian Schenk}'s
            Mik\TeX{};
\item[\sffamily fp\TeX{}]
for Microsoft Windows (\person{Fabrice  Popineau}) from the 2003 \TeX{} Live CD.
\end{description}

Many other implementations of \TeX{},
        such as \person{Tom Kiffe}'s CMac\TeX{} for the Apple Macintosh, can be
      downloaded from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}. \LaTeX{} is
      included with all modern distributions of \TeX{}.

The \TeX{} Collection CD is issued
      annually on behalf of most of the local \TeX{} user groups
      around the world (see \url+http://www.tug.org/lugs.html+ for addresses),
      and edited by \person{Sebastian Rahtz}, \person{Karl Berry}, \person{Manfred Lotz}, and the authors of the software mentioned above.
      These people give an enormous amount of their personal time and
      energy to building and distributing these systems, and they
      deserve the thanks and support of the user community for all
      they do.

There are many other distributions of \LaTeX{} both free and
      commercial, as described in the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{intro}: they all process \LaTeX{} identically, but
      there are some differences in size, speed, packaging, and (in
      the case of commercial distributions) price, support, and extra
      software provided.

One final thing before we start: publicly-maintained
      software like \TeX{} is updated faster than commercial software,
      so \emph{always check to see if there is a more recent
        version of the installation}. See the list on p.\thinspace\pageref{latest} in \S\thinspace\ref{latest} for more details.
\section{Editing and display}
\label{editdis}

When you install \LaTeX{} you will
        have the opportunity to decide \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item which plain-text editor[s] you want to use to create
              and maintain your documents;  and \item which preview programs you want to use to see your
              typesetting\end{inparaenum}. This isn't much use to you if you're
        unfamiliar with editors and previewers, so have a look at the
        table below, and maybe flip ahead to \S\thinspace\ref{editors} for a moment, where there are
        descriptions and screenshots.

The best bet is probably to install more than one\mdash{}if
        you've got the disk space\mdash{}or maybe all of them, because
        you can always delete the ones you don't like.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Editors]
There is a wide range of editors available: probably
              no other piece of software causes more flame-wars in
              Internet and other discussions than your choice of
              editor. It's a highly personal choice, so feel free
              to pick the one you like. My personal biases are
              probably revealed below, so feel equally free to ignore
              them.
\item[\sffamily Previewers]
For displaying your
              typesetting before printing, you will need a previewer.
              All systems come with a DVI\index{DVI@DVI}
              previewer for standard \LaTeX{},
              but if you are intending to produce industry-standard
              PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} (Adobe Acrobat) files you will
              need a previewer for those formats.
              \product{GSview} displays both
              PostScript\index{PostScript} and PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files;
              \product{xpdf} and Adobe's own
              \product{Acrobat Reader} just display
              PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files.
\end{description}

For brief details of some of the most popular editors used
	for \LaTeX{}, see \S\thinspace\ref{editors}.
\begin{warning}
\label{pdfurl}
\subsubsection*{Additional downloads}
For licensing reasons, the
          \product{GSview} PostScript/PDF previewer,
          the \product{Acrobat Reader} PDF previewer,
          and the \product{WinEdt} editor could not
          be distributed on the 2003 CDs. In those cases you have to
          download and install them separately.
\begin{itemize}
\item 
\product{GSview} is available for
              all platforms from \url+http://www.ghostscript.com/gsview/index.htm+
              (on Unix and VMS systems it's also available as
              \product{GhostView} and
              \product{gv}: see \url+http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/+)

\item 
\product{Acrobat Reader} (all
              platforms) can be downloaded from \url+http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html+

\item 
\product{WinEdt} (Microsoft Windows
              only) comes from \url+http://www.winedt.com+

\end{itemize}
\end{warning}
\section{Installation for Linux and Unix}
\label{lininst}

Make sure your system libraries and utilities are up to
        date. If you are using Red Hat Linux, use
        \product{yum} or
        \product{up2date} to download and install
        updates. For Debian and other distributions, use
        \product{apt-get} or similar. On Red Hat
        systems, remove any RPM version of te\TeX{} and associated
        utilities which may have been
        preinstalled, in order to avoid version conflicts.

If you are installing \TeX{} Live to a new partition, and
        you have the opportunity to reformat the partition before use,
        use \product{mkfs} with a granularity as
        small as it will go (usually 1024 bytes). This avoids the
        partition running out of inodes because \TeX{} uses very large
        numbers of very small files.

Plan the installation carefully if you are installing for
        multiple users (a shared machine): read \S\thinspace\ref{pkginst} for some comments on where to put additional
        files downloaded later, and see the FAQ on the same topic at
        \url+http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=wherefiles+

Above all, Read The Fine
          Manual (RTFM)\index{RTFM@RTFM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!RTFM@RTFM|textbf}. The documentation is in
        \url+live.html+ and
        \url+live.pdf+ on the disk in the directory
        \url+texlive2004/texmf-doc/doc/english/texlive-en/+
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small \TeX{} Live installation manual}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{tlcdoc}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small,commandchars=\\\{\}]
# cd /\textsl{\uline{mnt/cdrom}}/texlive2004
# sh install-tl.sh
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The installer runs in a shell window, so it can be done
	even from headless systems (those with no X Window client),
	but it does need to be installed as root if you want to stick
	with the default directory locations or install it system-wide
	for multiple users. To install, just type the commands shown
	above.

The options are mostly self-explanatory, and beginners
        should pick the recommended scheme and leave all other
        settings at their defaults. The character-driven interface
        lets you browse around the settings changing things and
        looking at options before you commit to installing
        anything.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The Unix installation program}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\scriptsize]
==================> TeX Live installation procedure <=================

===> Note: Letters/digits in <angle brackets> indicate menu items <===
===>       for commands or configurable options                   <===

    Proposed platform: Intel x86 with GNU/Linux
    <P> over-ride system detection and choose platform
    <B> binary systems:         1 out of 10
    <S> Installation scheme (scheme_recommended)
    [customizing installation scheme:
       <C> standard collections   <L> language collections]
    20 out of 75, disk space required: 246857 kB
    <D> directories:
      TEXDIR      (The main TeX directory)        : /usr/TeX
      TEXMFLOCAL  (Directory for local styles etc): /usr/TeX/texmf-local
      VARTEXMF    (Directory for local config)    : /usr/TeX/texmf-var
    <O> options:
       [ ] alternate directory for generated fonts ()
       [ ] create symlinks in standard directories
       [ ] do not install macro/font doc tree
       [ ] do not install macro/font source tree
    <R> do not install files, set up to run off CD or DVD
    <I> start installation
    <H> help,  <Q> quit

Enter command:
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\end{figure}

`Collections' (the {\slshape\verb`C`} and
	{\slshape\verb`L`} options) are groups of \LaTeX{} packages
	that you can include or exclude. It's best to leave this
	alone unless you know you need something specific. The only
	options I sometimes set are under {\slshape\verb`O`}: the
	`alternate directory for generated fonts' may
	need to be on a different partition for performance reasons on
	a shared system; and I always select `create symlinks in
	  standard directories' so that the system works
	immediately after the post-installation configuration (after
	installation, run \product{texconfig} to
	adjust your local settings.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Running the post-installation program
          \emph{texconfig}}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{texconfig}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Note that the Linux/Unix installation does not install any
        editors: it is assumed you can do this yourself from your
        distribution's standard package system (most likely
        you will already be using \product{Emacs} or
        \product{vi} anyway).
\section{Installation for Apple Mac}
\label{macinst}

This is exactly the same interface as for the Linux/Unix
        installation. You need the \product{bash}
      shell (see the warning in the manual for users of older systems).

There is a choice of graphical editors for the Mac: two
        are included on the DVD, \product{\TeX{}Shop}
        and \product{I\TeX{}Mac}, but they need to be
        installed separately, after installing \TeX{}.
\section{Installation for Microsoft Windows}
\label{wininst}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small \TeX{} Collection 2004 DVD}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{tcdvddir}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Before you install \TeX{}, make
        sure you have enough disk space: the default installation
        takes about 350Mb on a modern filesystem. The installation
        assumes you have a fully updated version of Windows, so visit
        the Microsoft Web site first (\url+http://www.microsoft.com/+) and click on
        \product{Windows Update}. Select and install
        all the relevant updates for your operating system (Windows
        95, 98, ME, 2000, NT, or XP). You should be doing this
        regularly anyway, to keep your system healthy. You may want to
        run \product{ScanDisk} and give your hard
        disks a full surface check. \TeX{} consists of a very large
        number of quite small files, so it's important that your
        disk is in good order.

When you insert the distribution
        DVD or CD, it should start the setup program automatically. If
        you have auto-run turned off, open \product{My
          Computer}, double-click on the DVD or CD drive,
        and then double-click \product{Autorun} to
        start the setup program.\footnote{Some builds of Windows seem to have a bug that stops
            \product{Autorun} starting the
            installation. In that case (for the \TeX{} Collection 2004
            DVD) double-click \url+Setup.exe+ instead,
            or (for the \TeX{}
            Collection 2003 CD) go to the \url+tpm+
            folder and double-click on
            \url+TeXSetup.exe+.}
\subsection{pro\TeX{}t (\TeX{} Collection 2004)}

For pro\TeX{}t from the \TeX{}
          Collection DVD, follow the instructions in the PDF
          documentation which opens automatically when you start
          the setup.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small pro\TeX{}t comes with its own installation
            guide}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{tcptpdf}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The documentation contains links (in large blue type)
          that you click on in sequence to run the installation
          process. (This is actually very good: everything worked
          first time when I did it on XP.) Basically, you need to
          install \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item \product{MIK\TeX{}};  \item either
                \product{WinEdt} (with or without
                some of its add-ons) or
                \product{\TeX{}nicCenter};  and \item \product{GhostScript} and
                \product{GSview}\end{inparaenum}.
\begin{warning}

You only need to install items step~\ref{nldi} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{nldi}
	    to step~\ref{td} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{td} if you install
	    \product{WinEdt}.
\end{warning}
\begin{figure}[b]\small
\caption{\small First document in
            \emph{\TeX{}nicCenter}}
\label{tcpt1}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{tcptfirstdoc}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Install \emph{MIK\TeX{}}}\\
\product{pro\TeX{}t} uses the
              \product{MIK\TeX{}} distribution as its
              core, a long-established and popular distribution for
              Windows.
\item \textbf{Install \emph{WinEdt}}\\
This is optional: it's a good editor,
            especially for the heavy user of a
            \product{MIK\TeX{}}-based system. This is
            a free month's trial\mdash{}after that it reminds you to cough
            up and register.
\item \textbf{Install the \emph{WinEdt} New \LaTeX{} Document Interface}\\\label{nldi}%
Optional again, and only applicable if you installed
              \product{WinEdt} anyway. It lets you
            save commonly-used document settings for use in other
            documents of the same type.
\item \textbf{Install the \emph{WinEdt}
            Graphics Interface}\\
Another optional add-on for
            \product{WinEdt} to provide drag-and-drop
            graphics insertion.
\item \textbf{Install the \emph{WinEdt} Table
            Designer}\\\label{td}%
Last optional add-on for
            \product{WinEdt}, providing a new table editor.
\item \textbf{Install \emph{\TeX{}nicCenter}}\\
This is a free equivalent to
            \product{WinEdt}. The interface is
              slightly different (see Figure~\ref{tcpt1}) but it
            is becoming very popular.
\item \textbf{Install \emph{GhostScript} and
              \emph{GSview}}\\
These are essential for viewing the PostScript and
              PDF output, especially if you don't have any other PDF
              viewer installed.
\end{enumerate}

You get a choice of editors,
          but the one which features in
          \product{pro\TeX{}t} is 
          \product{\TeX{}nicCenter}. This is an
          Integrated Development
            Environment (IDE)\index{IDE@IDE|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!IDE@IDE|textbf} which lets you manage all the files
          related to each document. In many cases, of course, you'll
          only have one (the text itself) but if you are working with
          anything beyond simple articles, you'll probably have
          illustrations (images or diagrams), and possibly separate
          chapter files for larger documents, plus indexes,
          glossaries, bibliographies, etc. I recommend that you create
          a new project for each new document, even if it's a
          single-file article, as I did for the example in Figure~\ref{tcpt1}.
\subsection{\TeX{} Live (\TeX{} Collection 2003)}
\par\smallskip\noindent\textbf{\itshape Once the installation program is running:}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{\LaTeX{}}\\
Install \LaTeX{} itself from the
            \menuitem{TeXLive Software}{Install on
            Hard Disk} menu. If you're new to
            \LaTeX{}, pick Quick Install on the following screen. This
              gives you everything you need to get started, and
              doesn't ask any questions, it just installs it all
              straight away.

If you're installing under Windows NT, 2000, or
              XP, you may want to click on the option to install for
              all users if you have other users on your system.

If you want to use \product{Emacs}
              as your editor, click the option for Xem\TeX{}
              Support.\footnote{Note this unfortunate choice of name is nothing
                  to do with \person{Eberhard Matthes}' MS-DOS implementation of \TeX{}
                  called em\TeX{}\mdash{}the `Xem' is
                  short for \product{Xemacs}.}
\item \textbf{Emacs}\\
After installation, right-click and drag
              \url+Xemacs.exe+ from the
              \url+C:\Program Files\TeXLive\bin\win32+
              folder out onto your desktop and let go, then pick
              `Create Shortcut'. This places
              \product{Emacs} on your desktop for
              easy access.
\item \textbf{WinShell and WinEdt}\\
If you want to install
              \product{WinShell}, run the installer
              program in the \url+support/winshell+
              directory. For \product{WinEdt} you
              must go to their Web site (\url+http://www.winedt.com/+) for a
              downloadable version.

You don't have to install just one editor: if
              you've got the space, install them all so you can
              try them out. You can always uninstall the ones you
              don't want afterwards.
\item \textbf{GSView}\\
Ghostscript is installed automatically, but for
              \product{GSView} you need to go to
              \url+http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/gsview/+,
              and download the most recent version.

If you use \product{GSView}, please
              register your copy with Ghostgum, Pty. (\url+http://www.ghostgum.com.au/+).
\end{enumerate}
\begin{warning}

Please read the \TeX{} Live update pages at \url+http://www.tug.org/texlive/bugs.html+ for
            details of any changes since the disks were released, and
            download and install any additional software
            required.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Installation problems}

It's always annoying when a program that's supposed to
        install painlessly causes trouble, and none the more so when
        everyone else seems to have been able to install it without
          problems. I've installed \TeX{} hundreds of times and very
        rarely had any difficulties, but these are a few of the
        occasions when I did.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Bad hard disks]
As recommended in \S\thinspace\ref{wininst}, run a
                scan and defragmentation of your hard disk[s] before
                you start. It should take under an hour on a modern
                machine unless you have a very large disk, and it may
                need overnight on an older machine. Clean your CD or DVD
                drive if it's been in heavy use. \TeX{} uses a very
                large number of very small files, so there is a lot of
                disk activity during an installation. As also
                recommended in \S\thinspace\ref{lininst}, if you have
                the chance to reformat the hard disk, pick the
                smallest granularity (cluster size) possible.
\item[\sffamily Registry errors]
This only affects Microsoft Windows users. The
                Registry is where Microsoft want software companies
                automatically to store details of all the programs you
                install.  Unfortunately the Registry is grossly abused
                by marketing departments to try and foist undesirable
                links on you, the user.  You will see this with many
                commercial programs, where a particular type of file
                you've been able to double-click on for years suddenly
                runs a different program.  Some programs install
                obsolete or broken copies of program libraries (DLL
                files), overwriting ones which were working perfectly.
                Worse, the viruses, trojans, and worms which typically
                infect unprotected Windows systems can leave unwanted
                links to web pages, or change some of the ways in
                which Windows operates. The overall effect can be that
                the whole machine slows down, or that files which are
                expected to do one thing do another.  The best
                solution is a thorough Registry clean-out, using one
                of the many programs available for the purpose.
\item[\sffamily Use the latest versions]\label{latest}
Before installing, check the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} web site (\url+http://www.ctan.org/+ for any updated
                copy of the installation program. This is called
                \url+install-tl.sh+ for Linux and Mac
                systems, and \url+Setup.exe+ for
                Microsoft Windows (on the \TeX{} Collection 2003 CD it
                was called \url+TeXSetup.exe+).  Just
                occasionally a bug slips through onto the production
                CD or DVD, and although it's always fixed and notified
                on \url+comp.text.tex+,
                that's a high-volume newsgroup and even the sharpest
                eyes may miss an announcement.
\item[\sffamily Stick to the defaults]
Unless you're a computer scientist or a software
                engineer, I suggest you never change or fiddle with
                the default directories for installation.  I know some
                of them look odd, but they're that way for a purpose,
                especially when it comes to avoiding directories will
                spaces in their names, like the notorious
                \verb+C:\Program Files+. Although most
                modern systems cope happily with spaces in filenames
                and directory names, they are usually A Bad Design
                Idea, and should be avoided like the plague (spaces
                are forbidden in web addresses for the same reason:
                the people who designed them knew the pitfalls). It
                may look snazzier to put the installation in
                \verb+My Cute Stuff+, but please
                don't: you'll just make it harder to find, harder to
                fix problems, and more embarrassing if you have to
                explain it to someone else trying to help you.
\end{description}
\chapter[Using your editor to create documents]{Using your editor \newline{}to create documents}
\label{plaintext}

\LaTeX{} documents are all \textbf{\textit{plain-text}}\label{plain-text}\index{plain-text@\textbf{\textit{plain-text}}} files.\footnote{`Plain-Text'
	  originally meant just the 95 printable characters of the
	  American Standard Code for Information
	    Interchange (ASCII)\index{ASCII@ASCII|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!ASCII@ASCII|textbf}\mdash{}see Table~\ref{asciicodes}\mdash{}but now more commonly includes
	  both these \emph{and} the relevant 8-bit
	  characters from \emph{one} (only) character
	  set such as ISO-8859-1 (Western Latin\ndash{}1) or
	  ISO-8859-15 (Western Latin plus the Euro sign). These are
	  international standards which work everywhere: you should
	  avoid using manufacturers' proprietary character sets
	  like Microsoft Windows\ndash{}1252 or Apple Macintosh
	  Roman\ndash{}8, because they may make your documents unusable
	  on some other systems.}  You can edit them with any editor, and transfer
      them to any other computer system running \LaTeX{} and they will
      format exactly the same. Because they are plain text they cannot
      corrupt your system, as they cannot be used for hiding or
      transporting virus infections as binary wordprocessor files can.
      Everything you can see is in the file and everything in the file
      is there for you to see: there is nothing hidden or secret and
      there are no manufacturers' proprietary
      `gotchas' like suddenly going out of date
      with a new version.
\section{Markup}
\label{mark-up}

In a \LaTeX{} document, you type your text along with
	\textbf{\textit{markup}}\label{markup}\index{markup@\textbf{\textit{markup}}} which identifies the
	important parts of your document by name, for example
	`title', `section',
	`figure', etc. \LaTeX{} does all the formatting
	for you automatically, using the markup to guide its internal
	rules and external stylesheets for typesetting.
\begin{sidebar}\subsection*{Markup}
This is a term from printing, and originally meant the
	  notes on how to lay the document out, or the instructions
	  which a proofreader might add during correction. It now also
	  means instructions or descriptions added to a computer
	  document to act as guidelines for identification or
	  formatting. Markup has been around for
	  \emph{ages}.
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\pbs{\raggedright}}b{.75in}r@{}}
\vrule height4pt width0pt \includegraphics[width=2in]{55-1L-part}&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\titlecite{tain}}\\[4pt]
\includegraphics[width=2in]{23-part}&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\titlecite{varmints}}\\[4pt]
\verb+.h1 Interest Rates+&Runoff&\emph{c.}1970\\[4pt]
\verb+\section{Interest Rates}+&\LaTeX{}&1984\\[4pt]
\verb+<sec><ttl>Interest Rates</ttl>...+&SGML\index{SGML@SGML}&1985\\[4pt]
\verb+<H1>Interest Rates</H1>+&HTML\index{HTML@HTML}&1991\\[4pt]
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup\end{sidebar}
You do not need to format any of your text \emph{in
	  your editor}, because \LaTeX{} does it
	all by itself when it typesets. You can of course regularise
	or neaten its appearance \emph{in your editor}
	for ease of editing (for example, keeping each item in a list
	on a separate line), but this is not required.

You will often hear \LaTeX{} markup referred to as
	`commands' or sometimes `control
	  sequences' (the proper \TeX{}nical term for them).
	For
	all practical purposes these terms all mean the same
	thing.

This course assumes that users have one of
	\product{\TeX{}shell},
	\product{\TeX{}nicCenter},
	\product{WinShell}, or
	\product{WinEdt} (Windows only), or
	\product{Emacs} or \LyX{} (any platform)
	installed. These are discussed briefly in \S\thinspace\ref{editors}, and the menus and toolbars for running
      \LaTeX{} are explained in \chaptername~\ref{process}.
\section{Quick start for the impatient}
\label{quickstart}

If you already know all this stuff about editors and
        plain-text files and running programs, and you know your system
        is already correctly installed (including your editor),
        you'd probably like to type something in and see \LaTeX{}
        do its job. If you don't, then skip forward to \S\thinspace\ref{commands} and read a bit more about \LaTeX{}
        first.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Sample document}
\label{sampledoc}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
\documentclass[12pt]{article}
\usepackage{palatino,url}
\begin{document}
\section*{My first document}

This is a short example of a \LaTeX\ document I wrote 
on \today. It shows a few simple features of automated 
typesetting, including

\begin{itemize}
\item setting the default font size to 12pt;
\item specifying `article' type for formatting;
\item using the Palatino typeface;
\item adding special formatting for URIs;
\item formatting a heading in `section' style;
\item using the \LaTeX\ logo;
\item generating today's date;
\item formatting a list of items;
\item centering and italicizing;
\item autonumbering the pages.
\end{itemize}

\subsection*{More information}

This example was taken from `Formatting Information',
which you can download from 
\url{http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/beginlatex/}
and use as a teach-yourself guide.

\begin{center}
\textit{Have a nice day!}
\end{center}

\end{document}
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\end{figure}
\par\smallskip\noindent\textbf{\itshape Up and running in a few minutes}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Install the software}\\
Make sure you have a
            properly-installed \LaTeX{} system and a copy of a
            suitable editor.
\item \textbf{Create a sample document}\\\label{demodoc}%
Open your editor and type in
            the text \emph{exactly} as shown in Figure~\ref{sampledoc}. Do \emph{not} make any
            changes or miss anything out or add anything different at
            this stage.
\item \textbf{Save the document}\\
Save the document as
            \url+demo.tex+
\item \textbf{Run \LaTeX{} or \emph{pdf\LaTeX{}}}\\
Click on the \guiicon{\LaTeX{}} or
	    \guiicon{pdf\LaTeX{}} toolbar icon or the
	    \menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
	      File} menu item; or type \verb+latex demo+ or \verb+pdflatex demo+ in a
	    command window.
\item \textbf{Preview the typesetting}\\
Click on the \guiicon{DVI} or
	    \guiicon{PDFview} toolbar icon or the
	    \menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
	      View} menu item; or type your previewer
	    command in a terminal shell.

(Note that there may be a pause the first time you use
	    your DVI\index{DVI@DVI} viewer, while WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG} font files are
	    created.\footnote{DVI\index{DVI@DVI} previewers use their
		own font files specially created from the font
		outlines (TrueType, OpenType, PostScript, \mf{},
		etc). The first time you use a font at a size not used
		before, there will be a second or two's pause
		while it gets created. The more you use \LaTeX{}, the
		less this
		happens.})
\item \textbf{Print it}\\
Click on the \guiicon{Print} toolbar icon
            within the viewer, or use the
            \menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{} Print}
            menu item, or type
            \verb+dvips -f demo | lpr+
            (Unix/Linux).
\end{enumerate}

If you encounter any errors, it means you
        \emph{do} need to study this chapter after
        all!
\section{Editors}
\label{editors}
\index{editors}
All the text of your documents can
	be typed into your
        \LaTeX{} document from a standard keyboard using any decent
	plain-text editor. However, it is more convenient to use an
	editor with special features to make using \LaTeX{} easier.
	Some of the most popular are
	\product{\TeX{}shell}\product{WinShell}, \product{\TeX{}nic
	  Center}, and \product{WinEdt}
	(Windows only); and \product{Emacs} (all
	platforms).
\subsection{\LyX{}}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The \LyX{} document editor}
\label{lyxwin}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{lyx}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The \LyX{} document editor (all platforms) is a special
	  case, as it uses the What You See Is
	    What You Mean (WYSIWYM)\index{WYSIWYM@WYSIWYM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!WYSIWYM@WYSIWYM|textbf} model of synchronous typographic
	  editing as opposed to What You See Is
	    What You Get (WYSIWYG)\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG|textbf}, and many users prefer this
	  interface (but see the reservations in the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{sync}).

\LyX{} makes a strong case for using synchronous
	  typographical editing: it is possible to create even quite
	  large and complex documents without seeing a backslash very
	  often, although with math or complex macros there is
	  probably no way to avoid having to do some manual insertion
	  of
	  \LaTeX{} code.

The free availability on multiple platforms makes this a
	  clear answer to the myth of `having to edit like a
	    programmer', and as it is an Open Source project,
	  there is constant improvement, both to the facilities and to
	  the interface.

Probably the only real reservation is that it does not
	  save native \LaTeX{} files by default. It uses its own
	  internal format, and it can export \LaTeX{} for use in other
	  editors, but the exported files are not designed for human
	  legibility, only for \LaTeX{} processing. In a co-operative
	  environment this would be a serious drawback, but for the
	  individual user this interface is an excellent tool.
\subsection{\TeX{}shell}
\label{texshell}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The \TeX{}shell editor}
\label{texshellwin}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{texshell}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

This is one of the simplest of all the plaintext Windows
	  editors, but it has most of the tools needed to begin with.
	  Sectioning, lists, and graphics can be inserted from the
	  menus, and there are buttons for running \LaTeX{} on the
	  open document and for previewing the typeset
	  document.

The syntactic highlighting distinguishes between
	  commands and your text, and it comes with options for
	  spellchecking (you need to install
	  \product{ispell}), and for adding math,
	  Greek (math), and some symbol characters from a pickchart.
	  The typeset display is done using your installed DVI\index{DVI@DVI} viewer (there is no provision for
	  PDF\index{PDF@PDF}, although as it is
	  configurable, that could probably be edited into the
	  menus).

Download the \url+.tar.gz+ file from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} in the
	  \url+support/TeXshell/+ directory and unwrap
	  it into somewhere like \url+C:\Program
	    Files\TeXshell\+.\footnote{Yes, I know I said don't use directory names with
	      spaces in them\mdash{}and so you shouldn't, for your
	\LaTeX{} documents\mdash{}but Windows programs are usually safe
	      enough in them.} There is a \product{tsconfig}
	  program in the same directory on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}, which is designed to help with
	  reconfiguring \TeX{}shell.
\subsection{WinShell}
\label{winshell}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The WinShell editor}
\label{winshellwin}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{winshell}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

This is another free Windows editor for beginners with
        \LaTeX{}. Despite its simplicity, it is capable of a
	  considerable amount of document management and assistance
	  with editing. As well as handling stand-alone \LaTeX{}
	  files, you can create a `Project' for larger
	  documents, which helps you keep track of additional files
	  like separate chapters, illustrations, diagrams, indexes,
	  etc.

You run \LaTeX{} direct from the toolbar icons or with
	  F-key shortcuts. Both standard \LaTeX{} and
	  \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} are supported, as well
	  as creation and previewing of
	  PostScript\index{PostScript} and PDF\index{PDF@PDF} output. There are additional toolbars
	  for math characters, and there is a `Table
	    Wizard' for handling tables. The syntax
	  highlighting distinguishes between commands (in blue) and
	  delimiters (in red), leaving your text in black.

Download the
	  \texttt{WinShell\textsl{\uline{nn}}.exe}
	  program (self-contained setup: the
	  \textsl{nn} changes with the version) from
	  CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} in the
	  \url+systems/win32/winshell/+ directory and
	  double-click it to start the setup.
\subsection{\TeX{}nicCenter}
\label{texniccenter}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The \TeX{}nicCenter editor}
\label{texniccenterwin}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{texniccenter}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\product{\TeX{}nicCenter} is a powerful
	  Windows editor suitable both for the beginner and the more advanced
	  user. Its `Project' environment keeps track of
	  multiple files, and the processing function (the bit which
	  actually runs \LaTeX{}, here called
	  `Build') tries to ensure that all the files you
	  need for a large or complex document are in place before you
	  start typesetting, to avoid errors like missing
	  illustrations.

It's a much more wordprocessor-like control
	  interface, with configurable toolbars and button-controls
	  for lists, math, tables, and previewing options.

Download the
	  \texttt{TXCSetup\textsl{\uline{xxx}}.exe}
	  program (self-contained setup: the
	  \textsl{xxx} bit changes with the version)
	  from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} in the
	  \url+systems/win32/TeXnicCenter/+ directory
	  and double-click it to start the setup.
\subsection{WinEdt}
\label{winedt}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The \emph{WinEdt} editor}
\label{winedtpic}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{winedt}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\product{WinEdt} is a highly
	  configurable plain-text editor for Windows. It comes with a
	  host of special functions and shortcuts for
        \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}, based on the Mik\TeX{} distribution. It
	  is supplied on the \TeX{} Collection 2004 DVD and the
	  \product{pro\TeX{}t} CD. You can also
	  download it from \url+http://www.winedt.com+\mdash{}in either case
	  there's a 1-month free trial, then it reminds you to
	  buy it.

\product{WinEdt} uses a built-in
	  toolbar of configurable buttons, preset for use with
	  \LaTeX{}, and it provides syntactic coloring of
          \LaTeX{} commands. Both the positioning and effect of the
	  buttons can be changed, using an editable file of icons and
	  a configuration panel. This flexibility lets you bind a
	  program and arguments (equivalent to a typed command) to a
	  particular icon.

There are default buttons on the toolbar for one-click
	  typesetting, previewing, and
	  PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} generation from \LaTeX{} documents,
	  and it manages multi-file document projects like most of the
	  other editors. \product{Winedt} is also
	  used by many people for normal plaintext file-editing tasks,
	  in preference to more limited programs like
	  \product{Notepad}. If you're using the
	  fp\TeX{} which came with the 2003 \TeX{}
	  Collection, some editing of the menus is required (explained
	  in the local installation document) because the default
	  setup is for
	  Mik\TeX{}/pro\TeX{}t.
\subsection{GNU Emacs}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Emacs editing \LaTeX{}}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{emacs}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\product{Emacs} is a product of the
	  GNU\index{GNU@GNU} Project.\footnote{`GNU's Not
		  Unix (GNU)\index{GNU@GNU|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!GNU@GNU|textbf}' is a project to make a
	      computing environment completely free of
	      restrictions.}  Versions are available for all makes and models
	  of computer, and it has a \LaTeX{}-mode which provides
	  syntactic colouring (`fontification'
	  in \product{Emacs}-speak) and mouseclick
	  processing from a menu or toolbar.

\product{Emacs}
	  is a very large and powerful editor, with
	  `modes' (plug-ins) to handle almost
	  everything you do on a computer. Many users run
	  \product{Emacs} once on logging in, and
	  never leave it for the rest of the day\mdash{}or month. As
	  well as edit, you can use it to read your mail, browse the
	  Web, read Usenet news, do wordprocessing and spreadsheets,
	  compile programs, help you write in any computer
	  language\mdash{}including XML\index{XML@XML} and
          \LaTeX{}\mdash{}and it provides a few games as well.

\product{Emacs}
	  knows about \LaTeX{} and how to process it, so it comes with
	  a menu full of \LaTeX{} operations to click on. If you are
	  editing complex documents with mathematics, there is a mode
	  (\product{AUC\TeX{}}) which has even more
	  functionality. \LaTeX{} support is well-developed, and there
	  is a hierarchy of newsgroups for
	  \product{Emacs} support.

Because \product{Emacs} runs on
	  Microsoft Windows, Macs, Linux, and most other platforms,
	  many \LaTeX{} users who have multiple machines (and those
	  who have multiple users to support) prefer it to other
	  editors because it provides the same environment regardless
	  of which platform they are using.

It's sometimes criticised for a steep learning
	  curve, but in fact it's no worse in this respect than
	  any other editor, given the power that it provides, and it
	  is significantly better than most which lack many of the
	  authorial tools available in Emacs.
\subsection{Mac editors}

Mac users will be disappointed that I haven't included
	any of the Mac interfaces here. It's simple: I don't have a
	Mac right now to try them out on. I hope to remedy this for a
	future edition.
\section{\LaTeX{} commands}
\label{commands}

\label{bsol}%
\LaTeX{} commands all begin with a
        \textbf{\textit{backslash}}\label{backslash}\index{backslash@\textbf{\textit{backslash}}}
        (\verb+\+)\footnote{Do not confuse the backslash 
            with the forward slash (\url+/+). They are
            two different characters. The forward slash is used on the
            Web and on Unix systems to separate directory names and
            filenames. The backslash is used in Microsoft Windows
            (only) for the same purpose, and in \LaTeX{} to begin a
            command.} and are usually made up of lowercase
        letters only, for example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\tableofcontents
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The
	\command{tableofcontents} command is an instruction
	to \LaTeX{} to insert the Table of Contents at this point. You
	would usually use this in a book or report (or perhaps a very
	long article) somewhere close to the beginning. You don't have
	to do anything else. Provided that you have used the
	sectioning commands described in \S\thinspace\ref{sections},
	all the formatting and numbering for the Table of Contents is
	completely automated.
\subsection{Simple commands}
\label{simplecmd}

\label{swallow}%
Simple one-word commands like
	  \command{tableofcontents} must be separated from
	  any following text with \textbf{\textit{white-space}}\label{wsp}\index{white-space@\textbf{\textit{white-space}}}. This means a
	  normal space, or a newline [linebreak] or a TAB character.
	  For example either of these two forms will work:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\tableofcontents Thanks to Aunt Mabel for all her help 
with this book.
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\tableofcontents
Thanks to Aunt Mabel for all her help with this book.
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you forget the white-space, as in the following
	  example, \LaTeX{} will try to read it as a command
	  called \verb+\tableofcontentsThanks+. There's no
	  such command, of course, so \LaTeX{} will complain at you by
	  displaying an error message (see \S\thinspace\ref{undefcs}).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\tableofcontentsThanks to Aunt Mabel for all her help 
with this book.
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\LaTeX{} swallows any white-space which follows a command
          ending in a letter. It does this automatically, so you
          don't get unwanted extra space in your typeset output,
          but it does mean that any simple command which ends in a
          letter and has no arguments (see below) must be followed by
          white-space before normal text starts again, simply to keep
          it separate from the text.
\subsection{Commands with arguments}
\label{cmdargs}

Many \LaTeX{} commands are followed by one or more
          \textbf{\textit{arguments}}\label{arguments}\index{arguments@\textbf{\textit{arguments}}}, a term from
          the field of Computer Science, meaning information to be acted
          upon. Here are two examples:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\chapter{Poetic Form}
\label{pform}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Such arguments always go in
        \verb+{+\textbf{\textit{curly
            braces}}\label{curly}\index{curly
            braces@\textbf{\textit{curly
            braces}}}\verb+}+ like
          those\index{braces|see{curly braces}} shown above. Be careful not to confuse the
          curly braces on your keyboard with round parentheses
          \verb+( )+, square brackets
        \verb+[ ]+, or angle brackets 
              \verb+< >+. They are all
          different and they do different things.

With commands that take arguments you do
          \emph{not} need to use extra white-space after
          the command, because there is an argument following it
          which will keep it separate from any normal text with
          follows after that. The following is therefore perfectly
        correct (although unusual because it's harder to edit:
        normally you'd leave a blank line between the chapter title or
        label and the start of the first paragraph).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\chapter{Poetic Form}\label{pform}The shape of poetry 
when written or printed distinguishes it from prose.
	\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{White-space in \LaTeX{}}
\label{white-space}
\index{white-space}
In \LaTeX{} documents, all \emph{multiple}
          spaces, newlines (linebreaks), and TAB characters are
          treated as if they were a \emph{single} space
          or newline during typesetting. \LaTeX{} does its own spacing
          and alignment using the instructions you give it, so you
          have extremely precise control. You are therefore free to
          use extra white-space in your editor for optical ease and
          convenience when editing.


          The following is therefore exactly equivalent to the example
          in the preceding section:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\chapter        {Poetic 
          Form}\label
            {pform}

The shape of poetry when written or printed 
distinguishes it from prose.
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

That is, it will get typeset exactly the same. In
          general, just leave a blank line between paragraphs and a
          single space between words and sentences. \LaTeX{} will take
          care of the formatting.
\section{Special characters}
\label{specials}
\index{special characters}
There are ten keyboard characters which have special
        meaning to \LaTeX{}, and cannot be used on their own except for
        the following purposes:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\setlength{\tabcolsep}{1mm}
\begin{tabular}{clcc}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Key}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}&\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\centering}}b{1.5in}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape \emph{If you need the actual character itself,
                  type:}}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Character}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\key{$\backslash$}&The command character&\command{textbackslash}&$\backslash$\\
\key{\$}&Math typesetting delimiter&\command{\$}&\$\\
\key{\%}&The comment character&\command{\%}&\%\\
\key{{\char'136}}&Math superscript character&\command{{\char'136}}&{\char'136}\\
\key{\amp }&Tabular column separator&\command{\amp }&\amp \\
\key{{\ttfamily\char'137}}&Math subscript character&\command{{\ttfamily\char'137}}&\texttt{\_}\\
\key{{\char'176}}&Non-breaking space&\command{{\char'176}}&{\char'176}\\
\key{\#}&Macro parameter symbol&\command{\#}&\#\\
\key{{\ttfamily\char'173}}&Argument start delimiter&\texttt{\$}\command{{\ttfamily\char'173}}\texttt{\$}&$\{$\\
\key{{\ttfamily\char'175}}&Argument end delimiter&\texttt{\$}\command{{\ttfamily\char'175}}\texttt{\$}&$\}$\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
These characters were deliberately chosen, either because
	they are rare in normal text, or (in the case of \$,
	\#, \amp , and \%) they already had an
	established special meaning on computers as \textbf{\textit{metacharacters}}\label{metacharacters}\index{metacharacters@\textbf{\textit{metacharacters}}} (characters
	standing as symbols for something else) by the time \TeX{} was
	written, and it would have been misleading to choose
	others.
\subsection{Using the special characters}

We have already seen (the first paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{bsol}) how
          to use the backslash to start a command, and curly braces to
        delimit an argument. The remaining special
        characters are:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \key{\$}]
Because of the special mathematical meaning
                \LaTeX{} uses for the dollar-sign on its own, if you
                want to print \$35.99 you type
                \verb+\$35.99+
\item[\sffamily \key{\%}]
\label{comment}%
The \textbf{\textit{comment character}}\label{commentchar}\index{comment character@\textbf{\textit{comment character}}} makes
                \LaTeX{} ignore the remainder of the line in your
                document, so you can see it in your editor, but it
                will never get typeset. For example \verb+Today's price per Kg is £22.70 % get Mike to update this+\\If you want to print 45\% you need
                  to type \verb+45\%+
\item[\sffamily \key{{\char'136}}]
The caret sign lets you type
                \verb+\(E=mc^2\)+ to get \(E=mc^{2}\). If you need the circumflex accent
                on a letter like ê, just type the letter or use the
                symbolic notation \verb+\^e+.
\item[\sffamily \key{\amp }]
The ampersand is used in tables to separate
		columns (see \S\thinspace\ref{tables}). If you want to
		print AT\amp T you need to type
		\verb+AT\&T+.
\item[\sffamily \key{{\ttfamily\char'137}}]
The underscore lets you type
                \verb+\(r_2\)+ for \(r_{2}\). If you want to underline text
                (extremely rare in typesetting) see the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{uline}.
\item[\sffamily \key{{\char'176}}]\label{tilde}
The tilde prints as a space, but prevents a
		linebreak ever occurring at that point. It's often
		used between a person's initials and their surname, eg
		\verb+Prof D.E.~Knuth+
\item[\sffamily \key{\#}]
If you want a
          \textbf{\textit{hash mark}}\label{hash}\index{hash mark@\textbf{\textit{hash mark}}} (the
          \textbf{\textit{octothorpe}}\label{octothorpe}\index{octothorpe@\textbf{\textit{octothorpe}}} or
                American number or `pound' [weight] sign)
                you type \verb+\#+. For a pound
                (sterling)\index{pound@£}
                sign £, now nearly obsolete except in the UK and
                some of its former dependencies, use your
                \key{£} key or type
                \command{textsterling}.
\end{description}

While we're on the subject of money, an unusual but
	  interesting serif-font Euro\index{euro@\euro{}} sign {\rmfamily{}\selectfont{}\euro{}}
	  is got with the \command{texteuro} command from the
	  \package{textcomp} package. The standard
	  sans-serif {\sffamily{}\selectfont{}\EUR{}} needs the
	  \package{marvosym} package and is done with
	  the \command{EUR} command.\footnote{The European Commission has specified that everyone
	      use the sans-serif design, even in serif text, but this
	      is amazingly ugly and most designers rightly ignore
	      it.}
\section{Quotation marks}
\label{quotes}
\index{quotation marks}
Do \emph{not} use the unidirectional
        typewriter keyboard \ttkey{"} key for quotation
        marks. Correct typographic quotes are got with the \ttkey{\`{}} key and the \ttkey{'} key, doubled if you want double
        quotes:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{pcr}\selectfont\renewcommand{\ttdefault}{pcr}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
He said, ``I'm just going out.''
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}He said,
            ``I'm just going out.''}
\end{quote}\end{example}

This ensures you get real left-hand
	and right-hand (opening and closing) quotes (usually shaped
	like tiny
	\textsuperscript{66} and \textsuperscript{99} 
	or as symmetrically-balanced strokes). If you are using
	\product{Emacs} as your editor, the
	\key{"} key is specially programmed in
	\LaTeX{}-mode to think for itself and produce correct {\ttfamily{}\selectfont{}\`{}\`{}} and
	\verb+''+ characters (so this is one occasion when
	you \emph{can} use the \key{"}
	key).
\begin{warning}

If you are reading this in a
          browser, or if you have reprocessed the file using different
          fonts, it may not show you real quotes (some old browser
          fonts are defective) and the \command{thinspace}
          below may be too wide. Download the typeset (PDF\index{PDF@PDF}) version of this document to see the
          real effect.
\end{warning}

\label{thinspace}%
When typing one quotation inside another,
        there is a special command \command{thinspace} which
        provides just enough separation between double and single
        quotes (a normal space is too much and could allow an unwanted
        linebreak):
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{pcr}\selectfont\renewcommand{\ttdefault}{pcr}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
He said, `Her answer was ``never''\thinspace'.
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

He said, `Her answer was
          ``never''\thinspace{}'.
\end{quote}\end{example}
\section{Accents}
\label{accents}
\index{accents}
For accented letters in western
	European languages\footnote{ISO 8859-1 (Latin\ndash{}1, Western European) to
	    8859-15 (includes the Euro).}  or other Latin-alphabet character sets just use
	the accented keys on your keyboard\mdash{}if you have the right
	ones. You must also tell \LaTeX{} what character repertoire
	(`input encoding') you are using. You
	specify this by using the \package{inputenc}
	package\footnote{We haven't covered the use of
	    packages yet. Don't worry, see \S\thinspace\ref{packages}
	    if you're curious.} in your preamble
	with the relevant option. For example, to tell \LaTeX{} you
	will be typing ISO Latin\ndash{}1 accented characters,
	use:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you have a real Unicode editor, which lets you insert
	any letter or symbol from any language on the planet (for
	example, mixed European, Asian, and other languages), use
	\verb+utf8+ instead of \verb+latin1+.
	The encoding definitions that are available on your system are
	in \url+/texmf/tex/latex/base+ (all files
	ending in \url+.def+).
\begin{sidebar}\label{keystrokes}
\subsection*{If you don't have accented letters}
This is for users whose keyboards do not have native
	  accent characters on them. See your Operating System manual
	  for full details. Here are two common examples:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
Under Linux systems the letter
	      é is usually got with
              \key{AltGr}--\key{;}~\thinspace{}\key{e}. Refer to the
	      \product{xkeycaps} utility for a table
	      of key codes and combinations (get it from \url+http://www.jwz.org/xkeycaps/+).

\item 
Under Microsoft Windows the letter é is got with
              \key{Ctrl}--\ttkey{'}~\thinspace{}\key{e} or by holding down the
	      \thinspace{}\key{Alt} key and typing
	      \thinspace{}\key{0}\thinspace{}\key{1}\thinspace{}\key{3}\thinspace{}\key{0} 
	      on the numeric keypad (\emph{not} the top
	      row of shifted numerals). Refer to the
	      \product{charmap} utility for a table
	      of key codes and combinations (find it in the
	      \url+C:\Windows+ folder).

\end{itemize}
\end{sidebar}
If you don't have accented letter keys on your
	keyboard, you'll need to use your operating system's
	standard keyboard \key{Ctrl} or
	\key{Alt} key combinations to generate the
	characters (see the panel `If you don't have accented letters' \testpage[above]{keystrokes}).

If you cannot generate accented characters from your
	keyboard at all, or if you need additional accents or symbols
	which are not in any of the keyboard tables, you can use the
	symbolic notation in Table~\ref{accentcodes}. In fact,
	this can be used to put any accent over any letter: if you
	particularly want a \~g you can have one with the command 
	\command{{\char'176}}\verb+g+ (and Welsh
	users can get \^w with
	\command{{\char'136}}\verb+w+).

If you use this symbolic method only, you do not need to
	use the \package{inputenc} package. Before the
	days of keyboards and screens with their own real accented
	characters, the symbolic notation was the
	\emph{only} way to get accents, so you may come
	across a lot of older documents (and users!) using this method
	all the time: it does have the advantage in portability that
	the \LaTeX{} file remains plain ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII}, which will work on all machines
	everywhere, regardless of their internal encoding, and even
	with very old \TeX{} installations.\footnote{Remember not everyone is lucky enough to be able to
	    install new software: many users on corporate and academic
	    networks still have to use old versions of \TeX{} because
	    their system administrators are too busy to
	    install new ones.}
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Built-in \LaTeX{} accents}
\label{accentcodes}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lcc}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Accent}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Example}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Characters to type}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Acute (fada)&é&\verb+\'e+\\
Grave&è&\verb+\`e+\\
Circumflex&ê&\verb+\^e+\\
Umlaut or diæresis&ë&\verb+\"e+\\
Tilde&ñ&\verb+\~n+\\
Macron&\=o&\verb+\=o+\\
Bar-under&{\b o}&\verb+\b o+\\
Dot-over (sé{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i}\.m{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i}ú)&{\.m}&\verb+\.m+\\
Dot-under&{\d s}&\verb+\d s+\\
Breve&\u u&\verb+\u u+\\
Há\v cek (caron)&\v u&\verb+\v u+\\
Long umlaut&\H o&\verb+\H o+\\
Tie-after&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}\t oo}&\verb+\t oo+\\
Cedilla&\c c&\verb+\c c+\\
O-E ligature&\oe , \OE &\verb+\oe+,
		\verb+\OE+\\
A-E ligature&\ae , \AE &\verb+\ae+,
		\verb+\AE+\\
A-ring&\aa , \AA &\verb+\aa+,
		\verb+\AA+\\
O-slash& \o , \O &\verb+\o+,
		\verb+\O+\\
Soft-l&{\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}\l{}, \L{}}&\verb+\l+,
		\verb+\L+\\
Ess-zet (scharfes-S)&\ss &\verb+\ss+\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

Irish and Turkish dotless-{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i} is done with the
	special command \command{i}, so an {\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\'\i}-fada
	(which is normally typed with \key{{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\'\i}})
	requires \verb+\'\i+ if you need to type it in
	the long format, followed by a backslash-space or dummy pair of
	curly braces if it comes at the end of a word and there is no
	punctuation, because of the rule that \LaTeX{} control
	sequences which end in a letter (see the first paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{swallow}) always absorb any following space.  So
	what you might see as  \textsl{Rí
	  Tea\.mra\.c} has to be \verb+R\'\i\ Tea\.mra\.c+ when typed in full (there are not
	usually any keyboard keys for the dotless-{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i} or the
	lenited characters). A similar rule applies to dotless-{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\j}} and to uppercase
	\'I.
\section{Dimensions, hyphenation, justification, and breaking}
\label{handj}
\index{dimensions}\index{hyphenation}\index{justification}\index{hj@H\amp J|see{hyphenation, justification}}
\LaTeX{}'s internal measurement system is
	extraordinarily accurate. The underlying \TeX{} engine
	conducts all its business in units smaller than the wavelength
	of visible light, so if you ask for 15mm space, that's
	what you'll get\mdash{}within the limitations of your
	screen or printer, of course. Most screens cannot show
	dimensions of less than
            \(\frac{1}{96}\)$''$ without resorting to magnification
	or scaling; and on printers, even at 600dpi, fine oblique
	lines or curves can still sometimes be seen to stagger the
	dots.

At the same time, many dimensions in \LaTeX{}'s
	preprogrammed formatting are specially set up to be flexible:
	so much space, plus or minus certain limits to allow the
	system to make its own adjustments to accommodate variations
	like overlong lines, unevenly-sized images, and non-uniform
	spacing around headings.

\TeX{} uses a very sophisticated
        justification algorithm to achieve a smooth, even texture to
        normal paragraph text. The programming for this has been
        borrowed by a large number of other DTP systems, and users of
        these are often quite unaware that they are in fact using a
        significant part of \TeX{} in their work.
        Occasionally, however, you will need to hand-correct an
        unusual word-break or line-break, and there are facilities for
        doing this on individual occasions as well as throughout a
        document.
\subsection{Specifying size units}
\label{dimensions}
\index{dimension}\index{units}
Most people in printing and publishing habitually use
          points and picas and ems. Some designers use cm and mm. Many
          English-language speakers still use inches. You can specify
          lengths in \LaTeX{} in any of these units, plus some others
          (see Table~\ref{units}).
\index{pt (points)}\index{points}\index{pc (picas)}\index{picas}\index{bp (big points)}\index{sp (scaled points)}\index{dd (Didot points)}\index{cc (Ciceros)}\index{em (relative measure)}\index{ex (relative measure)}\index{mm (millimeters)}\index{cm (centimeters)}\index{in (inches)}\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Units in \LaTeX{}}
\label{units}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{4in}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Unit}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Size}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape &\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Printers' fixed measures\\[2pt]
pt&Anglo-American standard points (72.27 to the
                  inch)\\
pc&pica ems (12pt)\\
bp&Adobe `big' points (72
                  to the inch)\\
sp&\TeX{} `scaled' points
                  (65,536 to the pt)\\
dd&Didot (European standard) points (67.54 to the
                  inch)\\
cc&Ciceros (European pica ems, 12dd)\\
\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape &\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Printers' relative measures\\[2pt]
em&ems of the current point size (historically the
                  width of a letter `M' but see
                  below)\\
ex&x-height of the current font (height of letter
                  `x')\\
\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape &\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Other measures\\[2pt]
cm&centimeters (2.54 to the inch)\\
mm&millimeters (25.4 to the inch)\\
in&inches\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

The em can cause beginners some puzzlement because
          it's based on the `point size'
          of the type, which is itself misleading. The point size
          refers to the depth of the metal body on which foundry type
          was cast in the days of metal typesetting,
          \emph{not} the printed height of the letters
          themselves. Thus the letter-size of 10pt type in one face
          can be radically different from 10pt type in another (look
          at the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{fontable-adobe}, where all the examples are
          10pt). An em is the height of the type-body in a specific size,
          so 1em of 10pt type is 10pt and 1em of 24pt type is
          24pt.

Another name for a 1em space is a
	  `quad', and \LaTeX{} has a command
	  \command{quad} for leaving exactly that much
	  horizontal space.  A special name is given to the 12pt em, a
	  `pica' em, as it has become a fixed
	  measure in its own right.

If you are working with other DTP users, watch out for
          those who think that Adobe points (bp) are the only ones.
          The difference is only .27pt per inch, but in 10$''$ of
          text (a full page of A4) that's 2.7pt, which is nearly
          1mm, enough to be clearly visible if you're trying to
          align one sample with another.
\subsection{Hyphenation}
\label{hyph}

\LaTeX{} hyphenates automatically according to the
          language you use (see \S\thinspace\ref{langs}). To specify
          different breakpoints for an individual word, you can insert
          soft-hyphens\index{hyphens!soft} (discretionary hyphens, done with
          \command{-}) wherever you need them, for
          example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
When in Mexico, we visited Popoca\-tépetl by helicopter.
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

To specify hyphenation points for all occurrences of a
          word, use the \command{hyphenation} command in your
          preamble (see the panel `The Preamble' \testpage[below]{preamble}) with one or more
          words in its argument, separated by spaces.  This will even
          let you break `helico-\linebreak pter' correctly. In this command
          you use normal hyphens, not soft-hyphens.\index{hyphens!discretionary}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\hyphenation{helico-pter Popoca-tépetl 
im-mer-sion}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you have frequent hyphenation problems with long,
          unusual, or technical words, ask an expert about changing
          the value of \length{spaceskip},
          which controls the flexibility of the space between words.
          This is not something you would normally want to do, as it
          can change the appearance of your document quite
          significantly.

If you are using a lot of unbreakable text (see next
          section and also \S\thinspace\ref{inlineverb}) it may also
          cause justification problems. One possible solution to this
          is shown in \S\thinspace\ref{macargs}.
\subsection{Unbreakable text}

To force \LaTeX{} to treat a word as unbreakable, use
	  the \command{mbox} command:
	  \verb+\mbox{pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis}+. 
	  This may have undesirable results, however, if
	  you change margins or the width of the text:
	  \mbox{pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis}\dots 

To tie two words together with an unbreakable
          space\index{hard space}\index{white-space!hard} (hard space), use a tilde (\verb+~+)
          instead of the space (see the list on p.\thinspace\pageref{tilde} in \S\thinspace\ref{tilde}). This
          will print as a normal space but
          \LaTeX{} will never break the line at that point. You should
          make this standard typing practice for things like
          people's initials followed by their surname, as in
          Prof. D. E. Knuth:
          \verb+Prof.\ D.~E.~Knuth+.
\begin{warning}

Note that a full point after a lowercase letter is
            treated as the end of a sentence, and creates more space
            before the next word. Here, after
            `Prof.', it's
            \emph{not} the end of a sentence, and the
            backslash-space forces \LaTeX{} to insert just an ordinary
            word-space because it's OK to break the line after
            `Prof.', whereas it would look
            wrong to have initials separated with Prof. D.E. Knuth broken over a line-end.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Dashes}

For a long dash\mdash{}what printers call an
          `em rule' like this\mdash{}use three
          hyphens typed together, \verb+like~--- this+,
          and bind them to the preceding word with a tilde to avoid
          the line being broken before the dash. It's also common
          to see the dash printed without spaces---like that: the
          difference is purely æsthetic. \emph{Never}
          use a single hyphen for this purpose.

Between digits like page ranges (35\ndash{}47), it is
          normal to use the short dash (what printers call an en-rule)
          which you get by typing two hyphens together, as in
        \verb+35--47+. If you want a minus sign, use math
          mode (\S\thinspace\ref{math}).
\subsection{Justification}

The default mode for typesetting is justified (two
          parallel margins, with word-spacing adjusted automatically
          for the best optical fit). In justifying, \LaTeX{} will never
          add space between letters, only between words. There is a
          special package called \package{so}
          (`space-out') if you need special
          effects like letter-spacing, but these are best left to the
          expert.

There are two commands
          \command{raggedright} and
          \command{raggedleft} which set ragged-right (ranged
          left) and ragged-left (ranged right). Use them inside a
          group (see the panel `Grouping' \testpage[below]{grouping}) to confine their
          action to a part of your text.

{\raggedleft
These modes also exist as
          `environments' (see the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{environments}) called
          \env{raggedright} and
          \env{raggedleft} which are more convenient
          when applying this formatting to a whole paragraph or more,
          like this one.
\par}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{raggedleft} 
These modes also exist as environments called raggedright 
and raggedleft which is more convenient when applying this 
formatting to a whole paragraph or more, like this one.
\end{raggedleft}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Ragged setting turns off hyphenation. There is a package
	  \package{ragged2e} which retains hyphenation
	  in ragged setting, useful when you have a lot of long
	  words.
\subsection{Languages}
\label{langs}

\LaTeX{} can typeset in the native manner for several
          dozen languages. This affects hyphenation, word-spacing,
          indentation, and the names of the parts of documents used as
          headings (e.g. Table of Contents).

Most distributions of \LaTeX{} come with US English and
          one or more other languages installed by default, but it is
          easy to add the \package{babel} package and
          specify any of the supported languages or variants, for
          example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage[frenchb]{babel}
...
\selectlanguage{frenchb}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Changing the language with
          \package{babel} automatically changes the
          names of the structural units and identifiers like
          `Abstract',
          `Index', etc. to their
          translated version. For example, using French as above,
          chapters will start with
          `\emph{Chapitre}'.
\section{Mathematics}
\label{math}
\index{mathematics}
As explained in the Preface on p.\thinspace\pageref{mathtex}, \TeX{} was
        originally written to automate the typesetting of books
        containing mathematics. The careful reader will already have
        noticed that mathematics is handled differently from normal
        text, which is why it has to be typeset specially. This
        document does not cover mathematical typesetting, which is
        explained in detail in many other books and Web pages, so all
        we will cover here is the existence of the math mode commands,
        and some characters which have special meaning, so they
        don't trip you up elsewhere.

In addition to the 10 special characters listed in \S\thinspace\ref{specials}, there are three more characters which
        only have any meaning inside mathematics mode:\index{math characters}
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{cl}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Key}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\key{$|$}&Vertical bar\\
\ttkey{<}&Less-than\\
\ttkey{>}&Greater-than\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
If you type any of these in normal text (ie outside math
	mode), you will get very weird things happening and lots of
	error messages. If you need to print these characters, you
	\emph{must} type them using math mode, or use
	their symbolic names from the \env{textcomp}
	package (\command{textbrokenbar},
	\command{textlangle}, and
	\command{textrangle}).

The hyphen also has an extra meaning in math mode: it
        typesets as a minus sign, so if you want to write about
        negative numbers you need to type the number in math mode so
        the minus sign and the spacing come out right.

To use math mode within a paragraph, enclose your math
        expression in \command{(} and \command{)}
        commands. You can get the much-quoted equation
        \(E=mc^{2}\) by typing
        \verb+\(E=mc^2\)+, and to get a temperature like
        \ifmmode-\else$-$\fi{}30° you need to type
        \verb+\(-30\)°+.\footnote{Bear in mind that the degree symbol is a non-ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} character, so you must specify
            what input encoding you are using if you want to type it:
            see the example of the \package{inputenc}
            package in \S\thinspace\ref{accents}. If you don't
            want to use non-ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} characters
            (or if you are using a system which cannot generate them),
            you can use the command \command{textdegree} to
            get the degree sign.}

To typeset a math expression as `displayed
          math' (centered between paragraphs), enclose it
        in the commands \command{[} and
        \command{]}.\footnote{You will also see dollar signs used for math mode.
            This is quite common but deprecated: it's what plain
            \TeX{} used in the days before \LaTeX{}, and the habit got
            ingrained in many mathematicians. It still works as a
            convenient shorthand like \url+$x=y$+, as do
            double-dollars for display-mode math like
            \url+$$E=mc^2$$+, but they are only mentioned
            here to warn readers seeing them in other authors'
            work that \command{(}\dots \command{)}
            and \command{[}\dots \command{]} are
            the proper \LaTeX{} commands.}
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\[\bar n^*_j(s)=\frac{\left\{s\sum_{i=1}^k
n_i(0)p^*{i,k+1}(s)+M^*(s)\right\}\sum_{i=1}^k
p_{0i}p^*{ij}(s)}{1-s\sum_{i=1}^kp_{0i}p^*_{i,
k+1}(s)}+\sum_{i=1}^kn_i(0)p^*_{ij}(s)[j=
1,2,\dots,k].\]
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

 \(\bar n^*_j(s)=
          \frac{\left\{s\sum^k_{i=1}n_i(0)p^*_{i,k+1}(s)+M^*(s)\right\} 
          \sum^k_{i=1}p_{0i}p^*{ij}(s)}{1-s\sum^k_{i=1}p_{0i}p^*_{i,k+1}(s)} 
          +\sum^k_{i=1}n_i(0)p^*_{ij}(s)\,\rlap{[j=1,2,\dots,k]}\)
          
\end{quote}\end{example}

Displayed equations can be auto-numbered with the
        \env{equation} environment instead of the
        \command{[} and \command{]} commands.
\chapter{Basic document structures}
\label{basic}
\index{sections}
\LaTeX{}'s approach to formatting is to aim for
      consistency. This means that as long as you identify each
      \textbf{\textit{element}}\label{element}\index{element@\textbf{\textit{element}}} of your document
      correctly, it will be typeset in the same way as all the other
      elements like it, so that you achieve a consistent finish with
      minimum effort. Consistency helps make documents easier to read
      and understand.

Elements are the component parts of a document, all the
      pieces which make up the whole. Almost everyone who reads books,
      newspapers, magazines, reports, articles, and other classes of
      documents will be familiar with the popular structure of
      chapters, sections, subsections, subsubsections, paragraphs,
      lists, tables, figures, and so on, even if they don't
      consciously think about it.

Consistency is also what publishers look for. They have a
      house style, and often a reputation to keep, so they rightly
      insist that if you do something a certain way once, you should
      do it the same way each time.

To help achieve this consistency, every \LaTeX{} document
      starts by declaring what \textbf{\textit{document
	class}}\label{documentclass}\index{document
	class@\textbf{\textit{document
	class}}} it belongs to.
\section{The Document Class Declaration}
\label{docdecl}
\index{document class}
To tell \LaTeX{} what class of document you are going to
	create, you type a special first line into your file which
	identifies it.\footnote{Readers familiar with SGML\index{SGML@SGML},
	    HTML\index{HTML@HTML}, or XML\index{XML@XML} will recognize the concept as
	    similar to the Document Type
	    Declaration.} To start a report, for
	example, you would type the \command{documentclass}
	command like this as your first line:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass{report}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There are four built-in classes provided, and many others
	that you can download (some may already be installed for
	you):
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \package{report}]
for business, technical, legal, academic, or
	      scientific reports;
\item[\sffamily \package{article}]
for white papers, magazine or journal articles,
	      reviews, conference papers, or research notes;
\item[\sffamily \package{book}]
for books and theses;
\item[\sffamily \package{letter}]
for letters.\footnote{The built-in \package{letter}
		  class is rather idiosyncratic: there are much better
		  ones you can download, such as
		  the \package{memoir} and
		  \package{komascript} packages.}
\end{description}

The \package{article} class in particular
	can be used (some would say `abused') for almost
	any short piece of typesetting by simply omitting the titling
	and layout (see below).

The built-in classes are intended as starting-points,
	especially for drafts and for compatibility when exchanging
	documents with other \LaTeX{} users, as they come with every
	copy of \LaTeX{} and are therefore guaranteed to format
	identically everywhere. \emph{They are \emph{\textbf{not}} intended as final-format
	  publication-quality layouts.} For most other
	purposes, especially for publication, you use 
	add-in packages (\S\thinspace\ref{packages}) to extend
	these classes to do what you need:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
The \package{memoir} and
	    \package{komascript} packages contain
	    more sophisticated replacements for all the built-in
	    classes;

\item 
Many academic and scientific publishers provide their
	    own special class files for articles and books (often on
	    their Web sites for download);

\item 
Conference organisers may also provide class files for
	    authors to write papers for presentation;

\item 
Many universities provide their own thesis document
	    class files in order to ensure exact fulfillment of their
	    formatting requirements;

\item 
Businesses and other organizations can provide their
	    users with corporate classes on a central server and
	    configure \LaTeX{} installations to look there first for
	    packages, fonts, etc.

\end{itemize}

Books and journals are not usually printed on office-size
	paper. Although \LaTeX{}'s layouts are designed to fit on
	standard A4 or Letter stationery for draft purposes, it makes
	them look odd: the margins are too wide, or the positioning is
	unusual, or the font size is too small, because the finished
	job will normally be trimmed to a different size
	entirely\mdash{}try trimming the margins of the PDF\index{PDF@PDF} version of this book to 185mm by 235mm
	(the same as \titlecite{companion} series)
	and you'll be amazed at how it changes the appearance!
	
\subsection{Document class options}
\label{doclayout}
\index{paper sizes}
The default layouts are designed to fit as drafts on US
	  Letter size paper.\footnote{Letter size is 8½$''$$\times$11$''$, which is the
	      trimmed size of the old Demi Quarto, still in use in
	      North America. The other common US office size is
	      `Legal', which is
	      8½$''$$\times$14$''$, a bastard cutting close to
	      the old Foolscap (8¼$''$$\times$13¼$''$). ISO
	      standard `A',
	      `B', and
	      `C' paper sizes are still
	      virtually unknown in many parts of North America.} To create documents with the correct proportions
	  for standard A4 paper, you need to specify the paper size in
	  an optional argument in square brackets before the document
	  class name, e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[a4paper]{report}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The two most common options are \opt{a4paper}
	  and \opt{letterpaper}. However, many European
	  distributions of \TeX{} now come preset for A4, not Letter, and
	  this is also true of all distributions of
	  \product{pdf\LaTeX{}}.

The other default settings are for: \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item 10pt type (all document classes);  \item two-sided printing (books and reports) or
		one-sided (articles and letters);  and \item separate title page (books and reports
		only)\end{inparaenum}. These can be modified with the following
	  document class options which you can add in the same set of
	  square brackets, separated by commas:
\index{fonts!sizes}\begin{description}
\label{docfontsize}
\item[\sffamily \opt{11pt}]
to specify 11pt type (headings, footnotes,
		etc. get scaled up or down in
		proportion);
\item[\sffamily \opt{12pt}]
to specify 12pt type (again, headings
		scale);
\item[\sffamily \opt{oneside}]
to format one-sided printing for books and
		reports;
\item[\sffamily \opt{twoside}]
to format articles for two-sided printing;
\item[\sffamily \opt{titlepage}]
to force articles to have a separate title
		page;
\item[\sffamily \opt{draft}]
makes \LaTeX{} indicate hyphenation and
		justification problems with a small square in the
		right-hand margin of the problem line so they can be
		located quickly by a human.
\end{description}

If you were using pdf\LaTeX{} for a report to be in 12pt
        type on Letter paper, but printed one-sided in draft mode, you
        would use:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[12pt,letterpaper,oneside,draft]{report}
	\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There are extra preset options for other type sizes
	  which can be downloaded separately, but 10pt, 11pt, and 12pt
	  between them cover probably 99\% of all document
	  typesetting. In addition there are the hundreds of add-in
	  packages which can automate other layout and formatting
	  variants without you having to program anything by hand or
	  even change your text.
\begin{exercise}
\label{firstline}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{1}Create a new document}
\subsubsection*{Create a new document}\begin{enumerate}\item 
Use your editor to create a new document.

\item 
Type in a Document Class Declaration as shown
		above.

\item 
Add a font size option if you wish.

\item 
In North America, omit the
		\opt{a4paper} option or change it to
		\opt{letterpaper}.

\item 
Save the file (make up a name) ensuring the name
		ends with \url+.tex+

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
\section{The document environment}
\label{docenv}

After the Document Class Declaration, the text of your
	document is enclosed between two commands which identify the
	beginning and end of the actual document:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}

\begin{document}
...
\end{document}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

(You would put your text where the dots are.) The reason
	for marking off the beginning of your text is that \LaTeX{}
	allows you to insert extra setup specifications before it
	(where the blank line is in the example above: we'll be
	using this soon). The reason for marking off the end of your
	text is to provide a place for \LaTeX{} to be programmed to do
	extra stuff automatically at the end of the document, like
	making an index.

A useful side-effect of marking the end of the document
	text is that you can store comments or temporary text
	underneath the \verb+\end{document}+ in the
	knowledge that \LaTeX{} will never try to typeset them.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
...
\end{document}
Don't forget to get the extra chapter from Jim!
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\label{environments}%
This
	\command{begin}\thinspace{}\dots \command{end}
	pair of commands is an example of a common \LaTeX{} structure called an
	\textbf{\textit{environment}}\label{environment}\index{environment@\textbf{\textit{environment}}}.
	Environments enclose text which is to be handled in a particular
	way. All environments start with
	\verb+\begin{...}+ and end with
	\verb+\end{...}+ (putting the name of the
	environment in the curly braces).
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{2}Adding the document environment}
\subsubsection*{Adding the document environment}\begin{enumerate}\item 
Add the \env{document} environment to
	      your file.

\item 
Leave a blank line between the Document Class
	      Declaration and the \verb+\begin{document}+
	      (you'll see why later).

\item 
Save the file.

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
\section{Titling}
\label{titling}
\index{titles}
The first thing you put in the
	\env{document} environment is almost always the
	document title, the author's name, and the date (except
	in letters, which have a special set of commands for
	addressing which we'll look at later). The title, author,
	and date are all examples of \textbf{\textit{metadata}}\label{metadata}\index{metadata@\textbf{\textit{metadata}}} or \textbf{\textit{metainformation}}\label{metainformation}\index{metainformation@\textbf{\textit{metainformation}}} (information
	\emph{about} information).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}

\begin{document}

\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle

\end{document}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The \command{title}, \command{author},
	and \command{date} commands are
	self-explanatory. You put the title, author name, and date in
	curly braces after the relevant command.  The title and author
	are usually compulsory; if you omit the
	\command{date} command, \LaTeX{} uses today's
	date by default.

You always finish the metadata with the
	\command{maketitle} command, which tells
	\LaTeX{} that it's complete and it can typeset the titling
	information at this point. If you omit
	\command{maketitle}, the titling will never be
	typeset. This command is reprogrammable so you can alter the
	appearance of titles (like I did for the printed version of
	this document).

The double backslash (\verb+\\+) is the
	\LaTeX{} command for forced linebreak. \LaTeX{} normally decides by
	itself where to break lines, and it's usually right, but
	sometimes you need to cut a line short, like here, and start a
	new one. I could have left it out and just used a comma, so my
	name and my company would all appear on the one line, but I
	just decided that I wanted my company name on a separate line.
	In some publishers' document classes, they provide a special
	\command{affiliation} command to put your company
	or institution name in instead.

When this file is typeset, you get something like this
	(I've cheated and done it in
	  colour (\S\thinspace\ref{colorpkg}) for fun\mdash{}yours will be in black and white
	for the moment):
\begin{center}
\fbox{\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{title}}
\end{center}
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{3}Adding the metadata}
\subsubsection*{Adding the metadata}\begin{enumerate}\item 
Add the \command{title},
	      \command{author}, \command{date}, and
	      \command{maketitle} commands to your
	      file.

\item 
Use your own name, make up a title, and give a
	      date.

\end{enumerate}

The order of the first three commands is not important,
	  but the \command{maketitle} command must come
	  last.
\end{exercise}

The document isn't really ready for printing like this,
	but if you're really impatient, look at \chaptername~\ref{process} to see how to typeset and display
	it.
\section{Abstracts and summaries}
\label{abstracts}
\index{abstracts}\index{summaries}
In reports and articles it is normal for the author 
	to provide an Summary or Abstract, in which you describe
	briefly what you have written about and explain its
	importance. Abstracts in articles are usually only a few
	paragraphs long. Summaries in reports can run to several
	pages, depending on the length and complexity of the report
	and the readership it's aimed at.

In both cases (reports and articles) the Abstract or
	Summary is optional (that is, \LaTeX{} doesn't force you
	to have one), but it's rare to omit it because readers want
	and expect it. In practice, of course, you go back and type
	the Abstract or Summary \emph{after} having
	written the rest of the document, but for the sake of the
	example we'll jump the gun and type it now.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\renewcommand{\abstractname}{Summary}
\begin{document}

\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle

\begin{abstract}
This document presents the basic concepts of 
typesetting in a form usable by non-specialists. It 
is aimed at those who find themselves (willingly or 
unwillingly) asked to undertake work previously sent 
out to a professional printer, and who are concerned 
that the quality of work (and thus their corporate 
æsthetic) does not suffer unduly.
\end{abstract}

\end{document}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

After the \command{maketitle} you use the
	\env{abstract} environment, in which you simply
	type your Abstract or Summary, leaving a blank line between
	paragraphs if there's more than one (see \S\thinspace\ref{paragraphs} for this convention).

In business and technical documents, the Abstract is often
	called a Management Summary, or Executive Summary, or Business
	Preview, or some similar phrase. \LaTeX{} lets you change the
	name associated with the \env{abstract}
	environment to any kind of title you want, using the
	\command{renewcommand} command to give the command
	\command{abstractname} a new value:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\abstractname}{Executive Summary}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{4}Using an Abstract or Summary}
\subsubsection*{Using an Abstract or Summary}\begin{enumerate}\item 
Add the \command{renewcommand} as shown
	      above to your Preamble.

The Preamble is at the start of the document, in
	      that gap \emph{after} the
	      \command{documentclass} line but
	      \emph{before} the
	      \verb+\begin{document}+ (remember I said
	      we'd see what we left it blank for: see the panel `The Preamble' \testpage[below]{preamble}).

\item 
Add an \env{abstract} environment
	      after the \command{maketitle} and type in a
	      paragraph or two of text.

\item 
Save the file (no, I'm not paranoid, just
	      careful).

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}

Notice how the name of the command you are renewing (here,
	\command{abstractname}) goes in the first set of
	curly braces, and the new value you want it to have goes in
	the second set of curly braces (this is an example of a
	command with two arguments). The environment you use is still
	called \env{abstract} (that is, you still type
	\verb+\begin{abstract}+\dots \verb+\end{abstract}+). 
	What the \command{abstractname} does is change the
	name that gets displayed and printed, not the name of the
	environment you store the text in.

If you look carefully at the example document, you'll
	see I sneakily added an extra command to the Preamble.
	We'll see later what this means (Brownie points for
	guessing it, though, if you read \S\thinspace\ref{accents}).
\begin{sidebar}\label{preamble}
\subsection*{The Preamble}
Modifications which you want to affect a whole document
	  go at the start of your \LaTeX{} file, immediately
	  after the \command{documentclass} line and before
	  the \verb+\begin{document}+ line:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\renewcommand{\abstractname}{Sneak Preview}
\begin{document}
...
\end{document}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This position, between the Document Class Declaration
	  and the beginning of the \env{document}
	  environment, is called the \textbf{\textit{preamble}}\label{pre}\index{preamble@\textbf{\textit{preamble}}}, and it is used for small or
	  temporary modifications to the style and behaviour of the
	  document. Major or permanent modifications should go in a
	  \url+.sty+ file and be invoked with a
	  \command{usepackage} command.
\end{sidebar}\section{Sections}
\label{sections}
\index{sections}
In the body of your document, \LaTeX{} provides seven
	levels of division or sectioning for you to use in structuring
	your text. They are all optional: it is perfectly possible to
	write a document consisting solely of paragraphs of
	unstructured text. But even novels are normally divided into
	chapters, although short stories are often made up solely of
	paragraphs.

Two of these divisions, Parts and Chapters, are only
	available in the \package{book} and
	\package{report} document classes, because they
	don't have any meaning in articles and letters.\footnote{It is arguable that chapters also have no place in
	    reports, either, as these are conventionally divided into
	    sections as the top-level division. \LaTeX{}, however,
	    assumes your reports have chapters, but this is only the
	    default, and can be changed very simply (see
            \S\thinspace\ref{reprog}).\label{repchap}}
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\label{secdepths}
\begin{tabular}{@{}clll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Depth}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Division}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Command}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Notes}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\(\ifmmode-\else$-$\fi{}1\)&Part&\command{part}&Books and reports\\
0&Chapter&\command{chapter}&Books and reports\\
1&Section&\command{section}&Not in letters\\
2&Subsection&\command{subsection}&Not in letters\\
3&Subsubsection&\command{subsubsection}&Not in letters\\
4&Titled paragraph&\command{paragraph}&Not in letters\\
5&Titled subparagraph&\command{subparagraph}&Not in letters\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
In each case the title of the part, chapter, section,
	etc. goes in curly braces after the command. \LaTeX{}
	automatically calculates the correct numbering and prints the
	title in bold. You can turn section numbering off at a
	specific depth: details in \S\thinspace\ref{secnum}.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\section{New recruitment policies}
...
\subsection{Effect on staff turnover}
...
\chapter{Business plan 2005--2007}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There are packages\footnote{Details of how to use \LaTeX{} packages are in \S\thinspace\ref{packages}.}  to let you control the typeface, style, spacing,
	and appearance of section headings: it's much easier to
	use them than to try and reprogram the headings manually. Two
	of the most popular are the \package{ssection}
	and \package{sectsty} packages.

Headings also get put automatically into the Table of
	Contents, if you specify one (it's optional). But if you
	make manual styling changes to your heading, for example a
	very long title, or some special line-breaks or unusual
	font-play, this would appear in the Table of Contents as well,
	which you almost certainly \emph{don't}
	want. \LaTeX{} allows you to give an optional extra version of
	the heading text which only gets used in the Table of Contents
	and any running heads, if they are in effect  (\S\thinspace\ref{runningheads}). This optional alternative
	heading goes in [square brackets] before the curly
	braces:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\section[Effect on staff turnover]{An analysis of the 
effect of the revised recruitment policies on staff 
turnover at divisional headquarters}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{5}Start your document text}
\subsubsection*{Start your document text}\begin{enumerate}\item 
Add a \command{chapter} command after your
	      Abstract or Summary, giving the title of your first
	      chapter.

\item 
If you're planning ahead, add a few more
	      \command{chapter} commands for
	      subsequent chapters. Leave a few blank lines between
	      them to make it easier to add paragraphs of text
	      later.

\item 
By now I shouldn't need to tell you what to do
	      after making significant changes to your document
	      file.

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Section numbering}
\label{secnum}
\index{section numbering}
All document divisions get numbered automatically.  Parts
	  get Roman numerals (Part I, Part II, etc.);
	  chapters and sections get decimal numbering like this
	  document, and Appendixes (which are just a special case of
	  chapters, and share the same structure) are lettered (A, B,
	  C, etc.).

You can change the depth to which section numbering
	  occurs, so you can turn it off selectively. In this document
	  it is set
	  to \arabic{secnumdepth}.
	  If you only want parts, chapters, and sections numbered, not
	  subsections or subsubsections etc., you can change the
	  value of the \counter{secnumdepth}
	  counter using the the \command{setcounter} command,
	  giving the depth value from the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{secdepths}:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{1}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

A related counter is \counter{tocdepth}, which specifies what
	  depth to take the Table of Contents to. It can be reset in
	  exactly the same way as \counter{secnumdepth}. The current setting
	  for this document is \arabic{tocdepth}.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setcounter{tocdepth}{3}
	\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

To get an \emph{unnumbered} section
	  heading which does \emph{not} go into the
	  Table of Contents, follow the command name with an asterisk
	  before the opening curly brace:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\subsection*{Shopping List}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

All the divisional commands from
	  \command{part*} to \command{subparagraph*}
	  have this `starred' version which can
	  be used on special occasions for an unnumbered heading when
	  the setting of \counter{secnumdepth}
	  would normally mean it would be numbered.
\section{Ordinary paragraphs}
\label{paragraphs}

After section headings comes your text. Just type it and
	leave a blank line between paragraphs. That's all
	\LaTeX{} needs.

The blank line means `start a new paragraph
	  here': it does \emph{not} (repeat:
	\emph{\textbf{not}}) mean you get a blank
	line in the typeset output. Now read this paragraph
	again and again until that sinks in.

The spacing between paragraphs is a separately definable
	quantity, a \textbf{\textit{dimension}}\label{dimension}\index{dimension@\textbf{\textit{dimension}}} or
	\textbf{\textit{length}}\label{length}\index{length@\textbf{\textit{length}}} called \length{parskip}. This is normally zero
	(no space between paragraphs, because that's how books
	are normally typeset), but you can easily set it to any size
	you want with the \command{setlength} command in the
	Preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parskip}{1cm}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\label{paraspace}%
This will set the space between paragraphs
	to 1cm. See \S\thinspace\ref{dimensions} for details of the
	various size units \LaTeX{} can use. \emph{Leaving
	  multiple blank lines between paragraphs in your source
	  document achieves nothing}: all extra blank lines
	get ignored by \LaTeX{} because the space between paragraphs
	is
	controlled only by the value of \length{parskip}.

White-space in \LaTeX{} can also be made flexible (what
	\authorof{latexbook} calls
	`rubber' lengths). This means that
	values such as \length{parskip} can
	have a default dimension plus an amount of expansion minus an
	amount of contraction. This is useful on pages in complex
	documents where not every page may be an exact number of
	fixed-height lines long, so some give-and-take in vertical
	space is useful. You specify this in a
	\command{setlength} command like this:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parskip}{1cm plus4mm minus3mm}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Paragraph indentation can also be set with the
	\command{setlength} command, although you would
	always make it a fixed size, never a flexible one, otherwise
	you would have very ragged-looking paragraphs.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parindent}{6mm}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

By default, the first paragraph after a heading follows
	the standard Anglo-American publishers' practice of
	\emph{no} indentation. Subsequent paragraphs are
	indented by the value of \length{parindent} (default
	18pt).\footnote{Paragraph spacing and indentation are cultural
	    settings. If you are typesetting in a language other than
	    English, you should use the \package{babel}
	    package, which alters many things, including the spacing
	    and the naming of sections, to conform with the standards
	    of different countries and languages.} You can change this in the same way as any other
	length.

In the printed copy of this document, the paragraph
	indentation is set to \the\parindent and the space
	between paragraphs is set to \the\parskip. These values do not
	apply in the Web (HTML\index{HTML@HTML}) version because not all browsers are
	capable of that fine a level of control, and because users can
	apply their own stylesheets regardless of what this document
	proposes.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{6}Start typing!}
\subsubsection*{Start typing!}\begin{enumerate}\item 
Type some paragraphs of text. Leave a blank line
	      between each. Don't bother about line-wrapping or
	      formatting\mdash{}\LaTeX{} will take care of all
	      that.

\item 
If you're feeling adventurous, add a
	      \command{section} command with the title of a
	      section within your first chapter, and continue typing
	      paragraphs of text below that.

\item 
Add one or more \command{setlength}
	      commands to your Preamble if you want to experiment with
	      changing paragraph spacing and indentation.

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}

To turn off indentation completely, set it to zero (but
	you still have to provide units: it's still a
	measure!).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parindent}{0in}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you do this, though, and leave \length{parskip} set to zero, your readers
	won't be able to tell easily where each paragraph begins!
	If you want to use the style of having no indentation with a
	space between paragraphs, use the
	\package{parskip} package, which does it for
	you (and makes adjustments to the spacing of lists and other
	structures which use paragraph spacing, so they don't get
	too far apart).
\section{Table of contents}
\label{toc}
\index{table of contents!automated entries}
All auto-numbered headings get entered in the Table of
	Contents (ToC) automatically. You don't have to print a
	ToC, but if you want to, just add the command
	\command{tableofcontents} at the point where you want
	it printed (usually after the Abstract or Summary).

Entries for the ToC are recorded each time you process
	your document, and reproduced the \emph{next}
	time you process it, so you need to re-run \LaTeX{} one extra
	time to ensure that all ToC page-number references
	are correctly calculated.

We've already seen in \S\thinspace\ref{sections} how
	to use the optional argument to the sectioning commands to add
	text to the ToC which is slightly different from the one
	printed in the body of the document. It is also possible to
	add extra lines to the ToC, to force extra or unnumbered
	section headings to be included.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{7}Inserting the table of contents}
\subsubsection*{Inserting the table of contents}\begin{enumerate}\item 
Go back and add a \command{tableofcontents}
	      command after the \verb+\end{abstract}+ command
	      in your document.

\item 
You guessed.

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}

\label{loflot}%
The commands \command{listoffigures}
	and \command{listoftables} work in exactly the same
	way as \command{tableofcontents} to automatically
	list all your tables and figures. If you use them, they
	normally go after the \command{tableofcontents}
	command.

The \command{tableofcontents} command normally
	shows only numbered section headings, and only down to the
	level defined by the \counter{tocdepth} counter (see \S\thinspace\ref{secnum}), but you can add extra entries with the
	\command{addcontentsline} command. For example if you
	use an unnumbered section heading command to start a
	preliminary piece of text like a Foreword or Preface, you can
	write:\index{table of contents!adding manual entry}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\subsection*{Preface}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Preface}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This will format an unnumbered ToC entry for
	`Preface' in the
	`subsection' style. You can use
	the same mechanism to add lines to the List of Figures or List
	of Tables by substituting \url+lof+ or
	\url+lot+ for \url+toc+.
\chapter{Typesetting, viewing and printing}
\label{process}
\index{typesetting}\index{viewing}\index{printing}
We've now got far enough to typeset what you've
      entered. I'm assuming at this stage that you have typed
      some sample text in the format specified in the previous
      chapter, and you've saved it in a plain-text file with a
      filetype of
      \verb+.tex+ and a name of your own choosing.
\index{filenames}\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{8}Saving your file}
\subsubsection*{Saving your file}
If you haven't already saved your file, do so now
        (some editors and interfaces let you typeset the document
        without saving it!).

Pick a sensible filename in a sensible directory. Names
        should be short enough to display and search for, but
        descriptive enough to make sense. See the panel `Picking suitable filenames' \testpage[below]{filenames} for more details.
\end{exercise}
\begin{sidebar}\label{filenames}
\subsection*{Picking suitable filenames}
Never, ever use directories (folders) or file names
	    which contain spaces.  Although your operating system
	    probably supports them, some don't, and they will
	    only cause grief and tears with \TeX{}.

Make filenames as short or as long as you wish, but
	    strictly avoid spaces. Stick to upper- and lower-case
	    letters without accents (A\ndash{}Z and a\ndash{}z), the
	    digits 0\ndash{}9, the hyphen (\verb+-+), and
	    the full point or period (\verb+.+), (similar
	    to the conventions for a Web URI\index{URI@URI}): it will let you refer to \TeX{}
	    files over the Web more
	    easily and make your files more portable.
\end{sidebar}\section{Typesetting}
\label{setting}

Typesetting your document is usually done by clicking
        on a button in a toolbar or an entry in a menu. Which one you
        click on depends on what output you want\mdash{}there are two
      formats available:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
The standard (default) \LaTeX{} program produces a
            device-independent (DVI)\index{DVI@DVI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DVI@DVI|textbf} file which
            can be used with any \TeX{} previewer or printer driver on any
            make or model of computer. There are dozens of these
            available: at least one of each (previewer and printer
            driver) should have been installed with your distribution
            of \TeX{}.

\item 
The \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} program
	    produces an Adobe Acrobat PDF\index{PDF@PDF}
	    file which can be used with any suitable previewer, such
	    as \product{GSview},
	    \product{PDFview},
	    \product{Xpdf}, the
	    \product{Opera} browser, or Adobe's
	    own \product{Acrobat Reader}.

\end{itemize}

Depending on which one you choose, you may have to
        [re]configure your editor so that it runs the right program.
        They can all do all of them, but they don't always come
        pre-set with buttons or menus for every possible option,
        because they can't guess which one you want.
\subsection{Standard \LaTeX{}}

There are also two ways of running \LaTeX{}: from the
	  toolbar or menu, or from the command line. Toolbars and
	  menus are most common in graphical systems, and are the
	  normal way to run \LaTeX{}. Command lines are used in
	  non-graphical systems and in automated processes where
	  \LaTeX{} is run
	  unattended (so-called `batch' or
	  `scripted' processing).

Whichever way you run \LaTeX{}, it will process your
	  file and display a log or record of what it's doing
	  (see Exercise~\ref{terminal}: it looks the
	  same no matter what system you use). This is to let you see
	  where (if!) there are any errors or problems.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{9}Running  from the toolbar or menu}
\subsubsection*{Running \LaTeX{} from the toolbar or menu}
Run \LaTeX{} on your file according to which system
	    you're using:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
In \product{WinEdt}, click the
		\guiicon{\LaTeX{}} toolbar icon;

\item 
In \product{Emacs}, click the
		\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
		  File} menu item.

\end{itemize}

Your editor may suggest you save your file if you
	    haven't already done so. Do it.
\end{exercise}

If \LaTeX{} reports any errors\mdash{}easily identifiable
	  as lines in the log beginning with an exclamation mark
	  (!)\mdash{}\emph{don't panic!} Turn to \S\thinspace\ref{errmsg}, identify what went wrong, and fix it in
	  your input file. Then re-run \LaTeX{}. If there were no
	  errors, your file is ready for displaying or
	  printing.
\subsection{Running \LaTeX{} from a command window}
\label{cmdwin}

This is worth practising even if you normally use a
          GUI\index{GUI@GUI}, so that you understand what it
          does. See Figure~\ref{cliex} for an example.
\begin{exercise}
\label{terminal}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{10}Running  in a terminal or console
            window}
\subsubsection*{Running \LaTeX{} in a terminal or console
            window}\begin{itemize}
\item 
Under graphical Unix-based systems (Linux and Mac)
		you open a command (shell) window by clicking on the
		shell or screen icon in the control panel at the
		bottom of your screen.

\item 
Under Microsoft Windows you open a command window
                by clicking on the
                \menuitem{Start}{Programs}[MS-DOS]
                or
                \menuitem{Start}{Command
                  Prompt} menu item.

\end{itemize}

When the command window appears, type
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small,commandchars=\\\{\}]
cd \textsl{\uline{documents}}
latex \textsl{\uline{mybook}} 
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Substitute the relevant directory and file name.
	    Remember to press the \key{Enter} key at the
	    end of each line.
\end{exercise}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Command-line usage}
\label{cliex}
\begin{center}
\label{clidemo}\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{terminal}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\subsection{pdf\LaTeX{}}

If you have configured your system to generate PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files direct instead of DVI\index{DVI@DVI} files (by using the
	  \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} program instead of
	  standard \LaTeX{}), then you can click the
	  \guiicon{pdf\LaTeX{}} icon in
	  \product{WinEdt} or type the command
	  \verb+pdflatex+ instead of
	  \verb+latex+ in a terminal (console) window.
	  \product{Emacs} does not have a default
	  menu configured for
        \product{pdf\LaTeX{}}.
\section{Errors and warnings}
\label{errmsg}

\LaTeX{} describes what it's typesetting while it does it,
	and if it encounters something it doesn't understand or can't
	do, it will display a message saying what's wrong. It may
	also display warnings for less serious conditions.
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{dontpanic}
\end{center}

\emph{Don't panic if you see error
	  messages}: it's very common for beginners to
	mistype or mis-spell commands, forget curly braces, type a
	forward slash instead of a backslash, or use a special
	character by mistake. Errors are easily spotted and easily
	corrected in your editor, and you can then run \LaTeX{} again
	to check you have fixed everything. Some of the most common
	errors are described in \S\thinspace\ref{errmsg} with an
	explanation of how to fix them.
\subsection{Error messages}
\label{errs}

The format of an error message is always the same. Error
	messages begin with an exclamation mark at the start of the
	line, and give a description of the error, followed by another
	line starting with the number, which refers to the line-number
	in your document file which \LaTeX{} was processing when the
	error was spotted. Here's an example, showing that the user
	mistyped the \command{tableofcontents}
	command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! Undefined control sequence.
l.6 \tableofcotnetns
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

When \LaTeX{} finds an error like this, it displays the
	error message and pauses. You must type one of the following
	letters to continue:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{cp{4in}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Key}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\key{x}&Stop immediately and e\emph{\textbf{x}}it the program.\\
\key{q}&Carry on \emph{\textbf{q}}uietly as best you can and
		  don't bother me with any more error
		  messages.\\
\key{e}&Stop the program but re-position the text in my
		  \emph{\textbf{e}}ditor at the point
		  where you found the error.\tablefootnote{TF-1}\\
\key{h}&Try to give me more \emph{\textbf{h}}elp.\\
\key{i}&(followed by a correction) means \emph{\textbf{i}}nput the correction in
		  place of the error and carry on.\tablefootnote{TF-2}\\
\end{tabular}
\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\textit{\alph{enumi}}}\footnotesize\begin{enumerate*}\item This only works if you're using an editor
		      which \LaTeX{} can communicate with.\label{TF-1}\item This is only a temporary fix to get the file
		      processed. You still have to make that
		      correction in the editor.\label{TF-2}\end{enumerate*}\end{center}
\endgroup
Some systems (\product{Emacs} is one
	  example) run \LaTeX{} with a
	  `non-stop' switch turned on, so it
	  will always process through to the end of the file,
	  regardless of errors, or until a limit is reached.
\subsection{Warnings}
\label{warn}

Warnings don't begin with an exclamation mark: they are
	just comments by \LaTeX{} about things you might want to look
      into, such as 
	overlong or underrun lines (often caused by unusual hyphenations, for
	example), pages running short or long, and other typographical
	niceties (most of which you can ignore until later).

Unlike other systems, which try to hide unevennesses in
	the text\mdash{}usually unsuccessfully\mdash{}by interfering
	with the letter-spacing, \LaTeX{} takes the view that the
	author or editor should be able to contribute. While it is
	certainly possible to set \LaTeX{}'s parameters so that
	the spacing is sufficiently sloppy that you will almost never
	get a warning about badly-fitting lines or pages, you will
	almost certainly just be delaying matters until you start to
	get complaints from your readers or publishers.
\subsection{Examples}

Only a few common error messages are given here: those
	  most likely to be encountered by beginners. If you find
	  another error message not shown here, and it's not
	  clear what you should do, ask for help. Most error messages
	  are self-explanatory, but because some errors can only be
	  righted by humans who can read and understand what it's
	  supposed to mean, they don't get spotted by \LaTeX{}
	  until much later, leading to several
	  messages in a row.

Newcomers should remember to check the list of special
	  characters in  (\S\thinspace\ref{specials}): a very large
	  number of errors when you are learning \LaTeX{} are due to
	  accidentally typing a special character when you didn't
	  mean to. This disappears after a few days as you get used to
	  them.
\subsubsection{Too many {\ttfamily\char'175}'s}
\label{toomany}
\index{Too many {\ttfamily\char'175}'s}\index{Error messages!Too many {\ttfamily\char'175}'s}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! Too many }'s.
l.6 \date December 2004}
	  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The reason \LaTeX{} thinks there are too many
	    \verb+}+'s here is that the opening curly
	    brace is missing after the \command{date} control
	    sequence and before the word \verb+December+,
	    so the closing curly brace is seen as one too many (which
	    it is!).

In fact, there are other things which can follow the
	    \command{date} command apart from a date in curly
	    braces, so \LaTeX{} cannot possibly guess that
	    you've missed out the opening curly brace\mdash{}until
	    it finds a closing one!
\subsubsection{Undefined control sequence}
\label{undefcs}
\index{Undefined control sequence}\index{Error messages!Undefined control sequence}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! Undefined control sequence.
l.6 \dtae
         {December 2004}
	  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

In this example, \LaTeX{} is complaining that it has
	    no such command (`control
	      sequence') as \verb+\dtae+.
	    Obviously it's been mistyped, but only a human can
	    detect that fact: all \LaTeX{} knows is
	    that \verb+\dtae+ is not a command it knows
	    about\mdash{}it's undefined.
\subsubsection{Runaway argument}
\label{runaway}
\index{Runaway argument}\index{Error messages!Runaway argument}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Runaway argument?
{December 2004 \maketitle 
! Paragraph ended before \date was complete.
<to be read again>
                   \par 
l.8 
	  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

In this error, the closing curly brace has been
	    omitted from the date. It's the opposite of the error in
	    \S\thinspace\ref{toomany}, and it results in
	    \command{maketitle} trying to format the title
	    page while \LaTeX{} is still expecting more text for the
	    date! As
	    \command{maketitle} creates new paragraphs on the
	    title page, this is detected and \LaTeX{} complains that
	    the
	    previous paragraph has ended but \command{date}
	    is not yet finished.
\subsubsection{Underfull hbox}
\label{underfull}
\index{Underfull hbox}\index{Error messages!Underfull hbox}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Underfull \hbox (badness 1394) in paragraph 
at lines 28--30
[][]\LY1/brm/b/n/10 Bull, RJ: \LY1/brm/m/n/10 
Ac-count-ing in Busi-
[94]
	  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This is a warning that \LaTeX{} cannot stretch the
	    line wide enough to fit, without making the spacing bigger
	    than its currently permitted maximum. The
	    \textbf{\textit{badness}}\label{badness}\index{badness@\textbf{\textit{badness}}} (0\ndash{}10,000) indicates
	    how severe this is (here you can probably ignore a badness
	    of 1394). It says what lines of your file it was
	    typesetting when it found this, and the number in square
	    brackets is the number of the page onto which the
	    offending line was printed.

The codes separated by slashes are the typeface and
	    font style and size used in the line. Ignore them for the
	    moment: details are in step~\ref{fdfiles} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{fdfiles} if you're
	    curious.
\subsubsection{Overfull hbox}
\label{overfull}
\index{Overfull hbox}\index{Error messages!Overfull hbox}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
[101]
Overfull \hbox (9.11617pt too wide) in paragraph 
at lines 860--861
[]\LY1/brm/m/n/10 Windows, \LY1/brm/m/it/10 see 
\LY1/brm/m/n/10 X Win-
	  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

And the opposite warning: this line is too
	    long by a shade over 9pt. The chosen hyphenation point
	    which minimises the error is shown at the end of the line
	    (\emph{Win-}). Line numbers and page numbers
	    are given as before. In this case, 9pt is too much to
	    ignore (over 3mm or more than \(\frac{1}{8}\)$''$), and a manual correction needs
	    making (such as a change to the hyphenation), or the
	    flexibility settings need changing (outside the scope of
	    this book).
\subsubsection{Missing package}
\label{nopkg}
\index{File not found}\index{Error messages!File not found}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! LaTeX Error: File `paralisy.sty' not found.

Type X to quit or <RETURN> to proceed,
or enter new name. (Default extension: sty)

Enter file name: 
	  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

When you use the \command{usepackage} command
	    to request \LaTeX{} to use a certain package, it will look
	    for a file with the specified name and the filetype
	    \url+.sty+. In this case the user has
	    mistyped the name of the \package{paralist}
	    package, so it's easy to fix. However, if you get the name
	    right, but the package is not installed on your machine,
	    you will need to download and install it before continuing
	    (see \chaptername~\ref{ctan}).
\section{Screen preview}
\label{dvi}
\index{preview}
Once the file has been processed without errors (or even
        if there are still errors, but you want to see what it's
        doing with them), standard \LaTeX{} will have created a
        DVI\index{DVI@DVI} file with the same name as your
        document but the filetype
        \verb+.dvi+. If you're using
        \product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, a PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file will have been created, and you
        can skip to
        \S\thinspace\ref{pdfview}.
\subsection{Previewing DVI output}
\label{dvipreview}

To see the typeset output, click on the
	  \menuitem{TeX}{TeX View}
	  menu item in \product{Emacs} or the
	  \guiicon{dvi} Preview toolbar icon in
	  \product{WinEdt}. A What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG)\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG|textbf}
	  preview window will appear with your typeset display (see
	  Figure~\ref{dviview}).
\begin{warning}
\label{bitmappreview}
\subsubsection*{Bitmap preview fonts in DVI viewers}
The first time you display your DVI\index{DVI@DVI} output with a new installation of
            \TeX{}, there may be a short pause if the previewer needs
	    to create the special bitmaps used for screen previews of
	    some fonts. These give greater accuracy on low-resolution
	    devices like screens. As you continue to work with
	    \LaTeX{} and your system accumulates these font files, the
	    pause for generating them will disappear. Recent versions
	    of \TeX{} work directly with Type 1 fonts, however,
	    and don't have this delay.
\end{warning}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small DVI preview}
\label{dviview}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{xdvi}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Most previewers have a wide range of scaling, zooming,
	  and measuring functions, but remember this is a
	  \emph{picture} of your output: you cannot edit
	  the image. To change it, you always edit your source text
	  and reprocess the file.

With \product{xdvi} and its derivatives
	  like \product{dviview}, you can leave the
	  display window open, and after you've reprocessed your
	  document through \LaTeX{}, moving your mouse back into the
	  window will make the display update automatically (click
	  your mouse if your windowing system needs a
	  click to focus).

Figure~\ref{dviview} shows
	  \product{xdvi} displaying a page. With a
	  standard three-button mouse you get three levels of
	  micro-zoom to let you inspect fine details.
\subsection{Previewing with PostScript}
\label{makeps}

PostScript\index{PostScript} is a page description
	  language invented by Adobe and used in laser printers and
	  high-end typesetters. It's been the universal standard
	  for electronically-formatted print files for nearly two
	  decades, and all printers and publishers are accustomed to
	  using it. PDF\index{PDF@PDF} is a descendant of
	  PostScript, and is rapidly taking over, but
	  PostScript\index{PostScript} itself is still extremely
	  common, largely because it is very robust, and is usually an
	  ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} file, which makes it very
	  portable and easy to generate (it is actually a programming
	  language in its own right). The drawback is the large size
	  of PostScript\index{PostScript} files, especially if
	  they contain bitmapped graphics.

The \product{dvips} program which comes
	  with all \TeX{} systems is used to generate
	  PostScript\index{PostScript} files directly from your
	  DVI\index{DVI@DVI} output. These
	  \url+.ps+ files can be viewed, printed, sent
	  to a platemaker or filmsetter, or put online for
	  downloading.

DVI\index{DVI@DVI} viewers cannot render some
	  PostScript\index{PostScript} graphical manipulations
	  like rotating and deforming, so an alternative to viewing
	  the DVI file direct is to generate a
	  PostScript\index{PostScript} file and use a
	  PostScript\index{PostScript} viewer. You may have to to
	  do this for your publisher anyway, and many editors can be
	  configured to do this by default. Look for a
	  \guiicon{dvips} toolbar icon or menu entry and
	  click on it.

It's also very simple to do manually: let's
          assume your \LaTeX{} file was called
          \url+mydoc.tex+, so processing it has created
          \url+mydoc.dvi+. Just type:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
dvips -o mydoc.ps mydoc
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\noindent in a command window (see Exercise~\ref{terminal} for how to use one)
          and \product{dvips} will create
          \url+mydoc.ps+ which can be used both for
          previewing and printing.

To view a PostScript\index{PostScript} file, you
	  need a PostScript\index{PostScript} previewer like
	  \product{GSview}, which works with the
	  PostScript\index{PostScript} interpreter
	  \product{Ghostscript}, which should have
	  been installed automatically along with your \TeX{} system
	  (if not, install both now: \product{GSview}
	  is separately licensed and cannot legally be included in
	  some older \TeX{} distributions, so you may have to download
	  it yourself).

\product{GSview} can be set to watch
          the PostScript\index{PostScript} file and automatically
          update the display any time the file is changed, without you
          even having to click on the window.
\subsection{Previewing with PDF}
\label{pdfview}

The Portable Document Format (PDF)\index{PDF@PDF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PDF@PDF|textbf}
	  is a derivative of PostScript\index{PostScript}.
	  Whereas PostScript\index{PostScript} is a programming
	  language in itself, PDF\index{PDF@PDF} is in effect
	  the \emph{result} of processing a document
	  through PostScript\index{PostScript}: it's a binary
	  file format, extremely compact, and well-supported on all
	  platforms.

If your system is configured to generate PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files direct instead of DVI\index{DVI@DVI} files, just open the
          \url+.pdf+ file using any PDF\index{PDF@PDF} previewer or browser.

Most editors are configured to display a toolbar icon
          which will pop up \product{Acrobat Reader}
          or some other viewer with the current PDF\index{PDF@PDF} output file.

Adobe's \product{Acrobat Reader}
          cannot automatically update the view if you reprocess your
          document, in the way that \product{xdvi}
	  and \product{GSview} can. You
          have to close the display with \key{Ctrl}--\key{W}~ and reload the file with \key{Alt}--\key{F}~\thinspace{}\key{1}.
\begin{warning}
\subsubsection*{Bitmap preview fonts in Acrobat Reader}
Acrobat Reader is extremely poor at rendering
	    Type 3 (bitmap) fonts. If you are using these (either
	    in an old \LaTeX{} installation which has not been
	    upgraded to Type 1, or with files using specialist
	    fonts only available in Type 3 format), you will see
	    a very fuzzy display at low magnifications. It will print
	    perfectly, but Acrobat Reader's display is
	    disappointing. The solution is to use a better previewer
	    or to upgrade to the Type 1 versions of the fonts
	    if possible, or both. If you need to
	    use Type 3 fonts in PDF\index{PDF@PDF}s,
	    you probably need to warn your readers to expect a fuzzy
	    display from Acrobat Reader (but good printout), and to
	    change to a better reader if they can.
\end{warning}
\section{Printer output}
\label{print}
\index{printing}
\TeX{} systems print on almost anything from the simplest
	dot-matrix printers to the biggest phototypesetters, including
	all the laser printers and a host of other devices in between.
	\emph{How} you do it varies slightly according
	to how you do your typesetting and previewing:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily If you are using DVI]
and you have a previewer which has a
	      \textbf{print} function configured for your
	      printer, you can use that. If not, create a
	      PostScript\index{PostScript} file and use
	      \product{GSview} instead.
\item[\sffamily If you are using PDF]
you can print directly from your PDF\index{PDF@PDF} viewer.  Be careful about using
	      the `Fit to page' options, as they will
	      change the size of your document so all your
	      measurements will be different.
\item[\sffamily Non-PostScript\index{PostScript} printers]
You can create a PostScript\index{PostScript}
	      file with \product{dvips} (see \S\thinspace\ref{makeps}) and use
	      \product{GSview} to print it
	      (\product{GSview} can print
	      PostScript\index{PostScript} files to almost any
	      make or model of non-PostScript\index{PostScript}
	      printer).


\item[\sffamily If you have a real PostScript\index{PostScript}
	    printer]
or you are using a system with built-in
	      PostScript\index{PostScript} printing support (such
	      as Linux or Mac), you can create and send
	      PostScript\index{PostScript} output directly from
	      your editor to the printer without the need to open it
	      in a previewer first. In
	      \product{Emacs}, for example, this is
	      what happens when you use the
	      \menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
		Print} menu item.
\end{description}

Both the \product{dvips} program and all
	the previewers that print tend to have facilities for printing
	selected pages, printing in reverse, scaling the page size,
        \index{page size!scaling}\index{printing!reverse order}\index{printing!selected pages} and printing only odd or even pages for two-sided
	work. If you are using PostScript\index{PostScript} there
	are programs for manipulating the output
	(\product{pstops}), for example to perform
	page imposition to get 4, 8, or 16 pages to a sheet for making
	booklets (\product{psnup}).
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{11}Print it!}
\subsubsection*{Print it!}
Show that you have understood the process of
	  typesetting, previewing, and printing, by displaying your
	  document and printing it.
\end{exercise}

If you need a
	non-PostScript\index{PostScript}/\product{Ghostscript} 
	solution, install a separate \TeX{} print driver for your
	printer. Some
	may be supplied with your \TeX{} installation, and there are
	dozens more on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}. Their names all
	start with \url+dvi+ and are followed by an
	abbreviation for the printer make or model like
	\product{dvieps} for Epson,
	\product{dvihp} for Hewlett-Packard,
	\product{dvialw} for Apple LaserWriters,
	etc.. Configure the driver to print directly to the print
	queue, or pipe it to the print queue manually. On Linux with
	an HP printer, for example, this would be
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
dvihp mydoc | lpr 
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Microsoft Windows has no easy way to bypass the print
	spool, but you can do it from an MS-DOS command window
	with (using a HP printer as an example):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
dvihp mydoc -o mydoc.hp
copy /b mydoc.hp LPT1:
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Read the documentation for the driver, as the options and
	defaults vary.
\chapter[CTAN, packages, and online help]{CTAN, packages, \newline{}and online help}
\label{ctan}

The Comprehensive \TeX{} Archive
	Network (CTAN)\index{CTAN@CTAN|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CTAN@CTAN|textbf} is a repository of Web and FTP\index{FTP@FTP} servers worldwide which contain copies of
      almost every piece of free software related to \TeX{} and
      \LaTeX{}.

CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} is based on three main
      servers, and there are several online indexes available. There
      are complete \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} systems for all platforms,
      utilities for text and graphics processing, conversion programs
      into and out of \LaTeX{}, printer drivers, extra typefaces, and
      (possibly the most important) the \LaTeX{} packages. The three
      main servers are:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
\TeX{} Users Group: \url+http://www.ctan.org/+

\item 
UK \TeX{} Users Group: \url+http://www.tex.ac.uk/+

\item 
Deutschsprachige Anwendervereinigung \TeX{} e.V. (DANTE,
	  the German-speaking \TeX{} Users Group); \url+http://dante.ctan.org/+

\end{itemize}
\begin{sidebar}
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} should
	\emph{always} be your first port of call when
	looking for a software update or a feature you want to use.
	Please don't ask the network help
	  resources (\S\thinspace\ref{help}) until you have checked CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} and the FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ} (\S\thinspace\ref{faq}).
\end{sidebar}\section{Packages}
\label{packages}
\index{packages!using}
Add-on features for \LaTeX{} are known as \textbf{\textit{packages}}\label{pack}\index{packages@\textbf{\textit{packages}}}. Dozens of these are
	pre-installed with \LaTeX{} and can be used in your documents
	immediately. They should all be stored in subdirectories of
	\url+texmf/tex/latex+ named after each package.
	To find out what other packages are available and what they
	do, you should use the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} search page\footnote{\url+http://www.ctan.org/search+} which includes a
	link to Graham Williams' comprehensive package
	catalogue.

A package is a file or collection of files containing
	extra \LaTeX{} commands and programming which add new styling
	features or modify those already existing. Installed package
	files all end with \url+.sty+ (there may be
	  ancillary files as well).

When you try to typeset a document which requires a
	package which is not installed on your system, \LaTeX{} will
	warn you with an error message that it is missing (see \S\thinspace\ref{nopkg}), and you can
	then download the package and install it using the
	instructions in \S\thinspace\ref{pkginst}. You can also
	download updates to packages you already have (both the ones
	that were installed along with your version of \LaTeX{} as
	well as ones you added).

There is no limit to the number of packages you can have
	installed on your computer (apart from disk space!), but there
	is probably a physical limit to the number that can be used
	inside any one \LaTeX{} document at the same time, although it
	depends on how big each package is. In practice there is no
	problem in having even a couple of dozen packages active (the
	style file for this document uses over 30).
\subsection{Using an existing package}
\label{colorpkg}

To use a package already installed on your system,
	  insert a \command{usepackage} command in your
	  document preamble with the package name in curly braces, as
	  we have already seen in earlier chapters. For example, to
	  use the \package{color} package, which lets
	  you typeset in colours (I warned you this was
	  coming!), you could type:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\usepackage{color}
\begin{document}
...
\end{document}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You can include several package names in one
          \command{usepackage} command by separating the
          names with commas, and you can have more than one
          \command{usepackage} command.

Some packages allow optional settings in square
	  brackets. If you use these, you must give the package its
	  own separate \command{usepackage} command, like
	  \package{geometry} shown below:
\begin{sourcecode}\label{oldtitle}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\usepackage{pslatex,palatino,avant,graphicx,color}
\usepackage[margin=2cm]{geometry}
\begin{document}

\title{\color{red}Practical Typesetting}
\author{\color{blue}Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{\color{green}December 2005}
\maketitle

\end{document}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

(Incidentally, this is a rather crude way to do colours in
	  titling on a once-off basis: if it's for a repeatable
	  style we'll see in \chaptername~\ref{macros} how it can
	  be automated and kept out of the author's way.)

Many packages can have additional formatting
          specifications in optional arguments in square brackets, in
          the same way as \package{geometry} 
          does. Read the documentation for the package concerned to
          find out what can be done.
\begin{exercise}
\label{geoex}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{12}Add colour}
\subsubsection*{Add colour}
Use the \package{color} package to add
	    some colour to your document. Stick with primary colours
	    for the moment.

Use the \package{geometry}
	    package to change the margins.

Reprocess and print your document if you have a colour
	    printer (monochrome printers should print it in shades of
	    grey).
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Package documentation}
\label{packagedoc}
\index{packages!documentation}
To find out what commands a package provides (and thus
	  how to use it), you need to read the documentation. In the
	  \url+texmf/doc+ subdirectory of your
	  installation there should be directories full of
	  \url+.dvi+ files, one for every package
	  installed. These can be previewed or printed like any other
	  DVI\index{DVI@DVI} file (see
          \S\thinspace\ref{dvipreview}). If your installation
	  procedure has not installed the documentation, the DVI\index{DVI@DVI} files can all be downloaded from
	  CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}.

Before using a package, you should read the
          documentation carefully, especially the subsection usually
          called `User Interface', which
          describes the commands the package makes available. You
          cannot just guess and hope it will work: you have to read it
          and find out.

See the next section for details of how to create the
          documentation \url+.dvi+ file for additional
          packages you install yourself.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{13}Read all about it}
\subsubsection*{Read all about it}
Find and view (or print) the documentation on the
            \package{geometry} package you used in
            Exercise~\ref{geoex}.

Investigate some of the other package documentation
            files in the directory.
\end{exercise}
\section{Downloading and installing packages}
\label{pkginst}
\index{packages!downloading}\index{packages!installing}
Once you have identified a package you need and
	haven't already got (or you have got it and need to
	update it), use the indexes on any CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} server to find the package you need
	and the directory where it can be downloaded from.
\subsection{Downloading packages}
\label{downloadpkg}

What you need to look for is always \emph{two
	    files}, one ending in \url+.dtx+
	  and the other in \url+.ins+. The first is a
	  DOC\TeX{}\index{DOC} file, which combines the package program and its
	  documentation in a single file. The second is the
	  installation routine (much smaller). You \emph{must
	    always} download \emph{both}
	  files.

If the two files are not there, it means one of two
	  things:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
\emph{Either} the package is part of a
	      much larger bundle which you shouldn't normally update
	      unless you change version of \LaTeX{};\footnote{For example, there is no
		  \url+color.dtx+ and
		  \url+color.ins+ for the
		  \package{color} package because it
		  forms part of the \package{graphics}
		  bundle, which is installed on all \LaTeX{} systems
		  anyway. Such packages change very rarely, as they

		  form part of the core of \LaTeX{} and are very
		  stable. In
		  general you should never try to update these
		  packages in isolation.}

\item 
\emph{or} it's one of a few rare or
	      unusual packages still supplied as a single
	      \url+.sty+ file intended for the now
	      obsolete \LaTeX{}\thinspace{}2.09.\footnote{You can try to use these if you wish but they
		  are not guaranteed to work, and have now almost all
		  been replaced by \LaTeXe{} versions. Always look for
		  the
		  \url+.dtx+ and
		  \url+.ins+ pair of files
		  first.}

\end{itemize}

\label{packinst}%
Download both files to a \textbf{\textit{temporary directory}}\label{tempdir}\index{temporary directory@\textbf{\textit{temporary directory}}}. If you use
	  Windows, keep a folder like \url+C:\tmp+ or
	  \url+C:\temp+ for this; Mac and Linux systems
	  already have a \url+/tmp+ directory.
\subsection{Installing a package}
\label{installpkg}

There are four steps to installing a \LaTeX{}
	  package:
\index{packages!installing}\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Extract the files}\\\label{extract}%
Run \LaTeX{} on the \url+.ins+ file.
	      That is, open the file in your editor and process it as
	      if it were a \LaTeX{} document (which is it), or if you
	      prefer, type \verb+latex+ followed by the
	      \url+.ins+ filename in a command window
	      in your temporary directory.

This will extract all the files needed from the
	      \url+.dtx+ file (which is why you must
	      have both of them present in the temporary directory).
	      Note down or print the names of the files created if
	      there are a lot of them (read the log file if you want
	      to see their names again).
\item \textbf{Create the documentation}\\\label{dtxdoc}%
Run \LaTeX{} on the \url+.dtx+ file
	      twice. This will create a \url+.dvi+ file
	      of documentation explaining what the package is for and
	      how to use it. Two passes through \LaTeX{} are needed in
	      order to resolve any internal crossreferences in the
	      text (a feature we'll come onto later). If you
	      prefer to create PDF\index{PDF@PDF} then run
	      \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} instead. View or
	      print this file in the usual manner (see \S\thinspace\ref{dvi}).
\item \textbf{Install the files}\\
While the documentation is printing, move or copy
	      the files created in step~\ref{extract}
	      from your temporary directory to the right place[s] in
	      your \TeX{} \emph{local} installation
	      directory tree\mdash{}always your `local'
	      directory tree, \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item to prevent your new package accidentally
		    overwriting files in the main \TeX{}
		    directories;  and \item to avoid your newly-installed files being
		    overwritten when you next update your version of
		    \TeX{}\end{inparaenum}.
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Where to put files from packages}
\label{where}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\ttfamily}l>{\pbs{\raggedright}\footnotesize}p{1.5in}@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Type}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Directory (under
		      \url+texmf-local/+)}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Description}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\url+.cls+&tex/latex/base&Document class file\\
\url+.sty+&tex/latex/\textsl{packagename}&Style file: the normal package
                    content\\
\url+.bst+&bibtex/bst/\textsl{packagename}&\BibTeX{} style\\
\url+.mf+&fonts/source/public/\textsl{typeface}&\mf{} outline\\
\url+.fd+&tex/latex/mfnfss&Font Definition files for \mf{} fonts\\
\url+.fd+&tex/latex/psnfss&Font Definition files for PostScript
                    Type 1 fonts\\
\url+.pfb+&/fonts/type1/\textsl{foundry}/\textsl{typeface}&PostScript Type 1 outline\\
\url+.afm+&/fonts/afm/\textsl{foundry}/\textsl{typeface}&Adobe Font Metrics for Type 1
                    fonts\\
\url+.tfm+&/fonts/tfm/\textsl{foundry}/\textsl{typeface}&\TeX{} Font Metrics for \mf{} and
                    Type 1 fonts\\
\url+.vf+&/fonts/vf/\textsl{foundry}/\textsl{typeface}&\TeX{} virtual fonts\\
\url+.dvi+&/doc&package documentation\\
\url+.pdf+&/doc&package documentation\\
others&tex/latex/\textsl{packagename}&other types of file unless instructed
		      otherwise\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

`The right place' sometimes causes
	      confusion, especially if your \TeX{} installation is old
	      or does not conform to the \TeX{}
		Directory Structure (TDS)\index{TDS@TDS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TDS@TDS|textbf}. For a TDS\index{TDS@TDS}-conformant system, this is either
	    \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item for \LaTeX{} packages, a suitably-named
		    subdirectory of
		    \url+texmf-local/tex/latex/+\footnote{See \S\thinspace\ref{rightplace} for how
			to create a parallel structure in your local
			directory if your installation didn't create
			one for you.};  or \item a suitably-named subdirectory of
		    \url+texmf-local/+ for files like
            \BibTeX{} styles which are not just for \LaTeX{} but can
		    be used in other \TeX{} systems\end{inparaenum}.

`Suitably-named' means sensible and
	      meaningful (and probably short). For a package like
	      \package{paralist}, for example, I'd call
	      the directory \url+paralist+.

Often there is just a \url+.sty+ file
	      to move but in the case of complex packages there may be
	      more, and they may belong in different locations. For
	      example, new \BibTeX{} packages or font packages will
	      typically have several files to install. This is why it
	      is a good idea to create a subdirectory for the package
	      rather than dump the files into
	      \url+misc+ along with other unrelated
	      stuff.

If there are configuration or other files, read the
	      documentation to find out if there is a special or
	      preferred location to move them to.
\item \textbf{Update your index}\\\label{texindex}%\index{packages!indexing}
Finally, run your \TeX{} indexer program to update
	      the package database. This program comes with every
	      modern version of \TeX{} and is variously called
	      \product{texhash},
	      \product{mktexlsr}, or even
	      \product{configure}, or it might just
	      be a mouse click on a button or menu in your editor.
	      Read the documentation that came with your installation
	      to find out which it is.
\end{enumerate}
\begin{warning}

This last step is \emph{utterly
	      essential}, otherwise nothing will
	    work.
\end{warning}
\begin{exercise}
\label{insttest}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{14}Install a package}
\subsubsection*{Install a package}
Download and install the
	    \package{paralist} package (which
	    implements inline lists).
\end{exercise}

The reason this process has not been automated widely is
	  that there are still thousands of installations which do not
	  conform to the TDS\index{TDS@TDS}, such as old
	  shared Unix systems and some Microsoft Windows systems, so
	  there is no way for an installation program to guess where
	  to put the files: \emph{you} have to know
	  this. There are also systems where the owner, user, or
	  installer has chosen \emph{not} to follow the
	  recommended TDS\index{TDS@TDS} directory
	  structure, or is unable to do so for political or security
	  reasons (such as a shared system where she cannot write to a
	  protected directory).

The reason for having the
	  \url+texmf-local+ directory (called
	  \url+texmf.local+ on some systems) is to
	  provide a place for local modifications or personal updates,
	  especially if you are a user on a shared or managed system
	  (Unix, Linux, VMS, Windows NT/2000/XP, etc.) where you may
	  not have write-access to the main \TeX{}
	  installation directory tree. You can also have a personal
	  \url+texmf+ subdirectory in your own login
	  directory. Your installation must be configured to look in
	  these directories first, however, so that any updates to
	  standard packages will be found there
	  \emph{before} the superseded copies in the
	  main \url+texmf+ tree. All modern \TeX{}
	  installations should do this anyway, but if not, you can
	  edit \url+texmf/web2c/texmf.cnf+ yourself.
	  There is an example in Appendix~\ref{cnf}.
\subsection{Replicating the TDS}
\label{rightplace}

I find it useful to make the directory structure of
	  \url+texmf-local+ the same as that of
	  \url+texmf+. Examine the subdirectories of
	  \url+texmf/tex/latex/+ for examples. For
	  updates of packages which came with your \LaTeX{}
	  distribution (as distinct from new ones you are adding
	  yourself), you can then use the same subdirectory name and
	  position in \url+texmf-local/...+ as the
	  original used in \url+texmf/...+.

If you want to create the entire subdirectory structure
	  ready for use, you can do it under Unix with the following
	  commands:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
cd /usr/TeX/texmf
find . -type d -exec mkdir -p /usr/TeX/texmf-local/{} \;
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you are using Microsoft Windows, you can download
	  \product{Cygwin}, which provides you with
	  the standard Unix tools in a shell window. The above command
	  should also work on a Mac running OS\thinspace{}X. In all cases,
	  if your installation directory is not
	  \url+/usr/TeX+, you need to substitute the
	  actual paths to your \url+texmf+ and
	  \url+texmf-local+ directories.
\section{Online help}
\label{help}
\index{help}
The indexes and documentation files on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} are the primary online resource for
	self-help on specific packages, and you should read these
	carefully before asking questions about packages.
\subsection{The FAQ}
\label{faq}

For general queries you should read the Frequently-Asked Questions (FAQ)\index{FAQ@FAQ|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!FAQ@FAQ|textbf} document so
	  that you avoid wasting online time asking about things for
	  which there is already an easily-accessible answer.

The FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ} is managed by the UK
      \TeX{} Users Group and can be found at \url+http://www.tex.ac.uk/faq/+\thinspace{}.
\subsection{The \TeX{}hax mailing list}

Another support resource is the mailing list \url+texhax@tug.org+. Again, feel free to ask
	  questions, but again, try to answer the question yourself
	  first (and say what you've tried in your
	  message).
\subsection{Web sites}

The \TeX{} Users Group, as well as most local user
	  groups, maintains a web site (\url+http://tug.org+) with lots of information
	  about various aspects of the \TeX{}
	  system.  See Appendix~\ref{tugform} for information on
	  joining TUG.
\subsection{News}

The Usenet newsgroup \url+comp.text.tex+ is the principal forum for other
	  questions and answers about \LaTeX{}. Feel free to ask
	  questions, but
	  please do not ask frequently-asked questions: read the
	  FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ} instead. The people who answer
	  the questions do so voluntarily, unpaid, and in their own
	  time, so please don't treat this as a commercial
	  support service.

To access Usenet news, type the following URI\index{URI@URI} into your browser's
	  `Location' or
	  `Address' window:
	  \verb+news:comp.text.tex+ (if your browser
	  doesn't support Usenet news properly, change it for one
	  that does, like \product{Mozilla}\footnote{\url+http://www.mozilla.org/+}), or download one of the many free newsreaders.\footnote{Note that this means newsreaders for the Usenet News
	      (NNTP) service. It does \emph{not} mean
	      syndication readers for RSS, which are a different thing
	      entirely\mdash{}these are unfortunately also sometimes
	      referred to as `newsreaders'.}
\subsection{Commercial support}

If you need commercial levels of support, such as
	  24-hour phone contact, or macro-writing services, you can
	  buy one of the several excellent commercial versions of
	  \TeX{}, or contact a consultancy which deals with \TeX{}
	  (details on the TUG Web site).
\chapter{Other document structures}
\label{otherdoc}

It is perfectly possible to write whole documents using
      nothing but section headings and paragraphs. As mentioned in
    \S\thinspace\ref{sections}, novels, for example, usually consist
      just of chapters divided into paragraphs. However, it's more
      common to need other features as well, especially if the
      document is technical in nature or complex in structure.

It's worth pointing out that
      `technical' doesn't necessarily mean
      `computer technical' or
      `engineering technical': it just means it
      contains a lot of $\tau\eta\chi\nu\epsilon$~(\emph{tekne}), the
      specialist material or artistry of its field. A literary
      analysis such as \titlecite{macnamara} (on the
      marginal notes in the manuscripts of \authorof{bovary}'s novel) is every bit as
      technical in the literary or linguistic field as the maintenance
      manual for the Airbus 380 is in the aircraft engineering
      field.

This chapter covers the most common features needed in
      writing structured documents: lists, tables, figures (including
      images), sidebars like boxes and panels, and verbatim text
      (computer program listings). In \chaptername~\ref{texttools} we
      will cover footnotes, cross-references, citations, and other
      textual tools.
\section{A little think about structure}
\label{briefstruct}

It's very easy to sit down at a keyboard with a
        traditional wordprocessor and just start typing. If it's
        a very short document, or something transient or relatively
        unimportant, then you just want to type it in and make it look
        `right' by highlighting with the mouse
        and clicking on font styles and sizes.

In doing so, you may achieve the effect you wanted, but
	your actions have left no trace behind of
	\emph{why} you made these changes. This is
	usually unimportant for trivial or short-term documents, but
	if you write longer or more complex documents, or if you often
	write documents to a regular pattern, then making them
	consistent by manual methods becomes a nightmare.
        \LaTeX{}'s facilities for automation are based on you
	providing this `why'
	information.

If your documents have any of the features below, then you
	have probably already started thinking about structure.
\begin{itemize}
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\Square}}
\item 
The document naturally divides into sections (parts,
            chapters, etc.).

\item 
The document is long.

\item 
There is lots of repetitive formatting in the
            document.

\item 
The document is complex (intellectually or
            visually).

\item 
There are lots of figures or tables (or examples,
            exercises, panels, sidebars, etc.).

\item 
Accuracy is important in formatting the
            document.

\item 
A master copy is needed for future reference or
            reprinting.

\item 
This is a formal or official document needing special
            care and attention.

\item 
It's \emph{my} thesis, book,
            leaflet, pamphlet, paper, article, etc.
            \emph{That}'s why I care.

\item 
The document (or part of it) may need ongoing or
            occasional re-editing and republishing.

\end{itemize}

If you've got that far, you're over half-way
        done. Using a structural editor\mdash{}even a simple
        outliner\mdash{}can make a huge difference to the quality of
        your thinking because you are consciously organising your
        thoughts before setting them down. And it can make just as big
        a difference to your formatting as well: more consistent,
        better presented, easier for the reader to navigate through,
        and more likely to be read and understood\mdash{}which is
        presumably why you are writing the document in the first
        place.
\section{Lists}
\label{lists}
\index{lists}
Lists are useful tools for arranging thoughts in a
        digestible format, usually a small piece of information at a
        time. There are four basic types of list, shown in Table~\ref{listtypes}.
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Types of lists}
\label{listtypes}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{0.48\columnwidth}>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{0.48\columnwidth}@{}}
\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Random or arbitrary lists](sometimes called
                    `itemized' or
                    `bulleted' lists) where the
                    order of items is unimportant. The
                    items are often prefixed with a bullet or other
                    symbol for clarity or decoration, but are
                    sometimes simply left blank, looking like
                    miniature paragraphs (when they are known as
                    `simple' or
                    `trivial' lists).\end{description}&\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Enumerated or sequential lists](sometimes called
		    `numbered' lists) where the
		    order of items is critical, such as sequences of
		    instructions or rankings of importance. The
		    enumeration can be numeric (Arabic or Roman), or
		    lettered (uppercase or lowercase), and can even be
		    programmed to be hierarchical (1.a.viii, 2.3.6,
		    etc.).\end{description}\\
\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Descriptive or labelled lists](sometimes called
                    `discussion' lists), which
                    are composed of subheadings or topic labels
                    (usually unnumbered but typographically distinct),
                    each followed by one or more indented paragraphs
                    of discussion or explanation.\end{description}&\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Inline lists]which are sequential in nature, just like
		    enumerated lists, but are
                  \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item formatted \emph{within}
			  their paragraph;  and \item usually labelled with letters,\end{inparaenum} like this example. The items
		    are often mutually inclusive or exclusive, with
		    the final item prefixed by
		    `and' or
		    `or' respectively.\end{description}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

There are actually two other types, segmented lists and
	reference lists, but these are much rarer, and outside the
	scope of this document.
\index{environment}
The structure of lists in \LaTeX{} is identical for each
        type, but with a different environment name. Lists are another
        example of this \LaTeX{} technique (environments), where a pair
        of matched commands surrounds some text which needs special
        treatment.

Within a list environment, list items are always
        identified by the command \command{item} (followed by
        an item label in [square brackets] in the case of labelled
        lists). You don't type the bullet or the number or the
        formatting, it's all automated.
\subsection{Itemized lists}
\index{lists!itemized}\index{lists!bulleted}
To create an itemized list, use the the
          \env{itemize} environment:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{itemize}

\item Itemized lists usually have a bullet;

\item Long items use `hanging indentation', 
whereby the text is wrapped with a margin 
which brings it clear of the bullet used in 
the first line of each item;

\item The bullet can be changed for any other 
symbol, for example from the \textsf{bbding} 
or \textsf{pifont} package.

\end{itemize}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{itemize}
\label{labelitem}
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\PencilRight}}}
\item 
Itemized lists usually have a bullet;

\item 
Long items use `hanging
                  indentation', whereby the text is
                wrapped with a margin which brings it clear of the
                bullet used in the first line of each item;

\item 
The bullet can be changed for any other symbol,
                for example from the \package{bbding}
                or \package{pifont} package.

\end{itemize}
\end{quote}\end{example}

The default list bullet is round and solid\footnote{If your browser font doesn't show it, don't
	      worry: most don't. \LaTeX{} will.} (\textbullet{}) which is also available with the
	  command \command{textbullet} if you load the
	  \package{textcomp} package. See \S\thinspace\ref{bullets} for details of how to change the
	  settings for list item bullets.
\subsection{Enumerated lists}
\index{lists!numbered}\index{lists!enumerated}
To create an enumerated list, use the
          \env{enumerate} environment:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{enumerate}

\item Enumerated lists use numbering on each 
item (can also be letters or roman numerals);

\item Long items use `hanging indentation' 
just the same as for itemized lists;

\item The numbering system can be changed for 
any level.

\end{enumerate}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{enumerate}\item 
Enumerated lists use numbering on each
                item (can also be letters or roman numerals);

\item 
Long items use `hanging
                  indentation', just the same as for
                itemized lists;

\item 
The numbering system can be changed for any
                level.

\end{enumerate}
\end{quote}\end{example}

See \S\thinspace\ref{numberschemes} for details of how
          to change the numbering schemes for each level.

In standard \LaTeX{} document classes, the vertical
	  spacing between items, and above and below the lists as a
	  whole, is more than between paragraphs. If you want
          tightly-packed lists, use the
          \package{mdwlist} package, which provides
          `starred' versions
          (\env{itemize*},
          \env{enumerate*}, etc).
\subsection{Description lists}
\label{desc}
\index{lists!description}\index{lists!discussion}
To create a description list, use the
          \env{description} environment:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{description}

\item[Identification:] description lists 
require a topic for each item given in 
square brackets;

\item[Hanging indentation:] Long items use 
this in the same way as all other lists;

\item[Reformatting:] Long topics can be 
reprogrammed to fold onto multiple lines.

\end{description}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Identification:]
description lists require a topic for each item
                  given in square brackets;
\item[\sffamily Hanging indentation:]
Long items use this in the same way as all other
                  lists;
\item[\sffamily Reformatting:]
Long topics can be reprogrammed to fold onto
                  multiple lines.
\end{description}
\end{quote}\end{example}

All three of these types of lists can have multiple
	paragraphs per item: just type the additional paragraphs in
	the normal way, with a blank line between each. So long as
	they are still contained within the enclosing environment,
	they will automatically be indented to follow underneath their
	item.
\subsection{Inline lists}
\label{inlinelists}
\index{lists!inline}
Inline lists are a special case as they require the use
	  of the \package{paralist} package which
	  provides the \env{inparaenum} environment
	  (with an optional formatting specification in square
	  brackets):
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{paralist}
...
\textbf{\itshape Inline lists}, which are 
sequential in nature, just like enumerated 
lists, but are \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape 
a\upshape)]\item formatted within their 
paragraph; \item usually labelled with 
letters; and \item usually have the final
item prefixed with `and' or 
`or'\end{inparaenum}, like this example. 
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

\textbf{\textit{Inline lists}}\label{inlines}\index{Inline lists@\textbf{\textit{Inline lists}}},
            which are sequential in nature, just like enumerated
            lists, but are \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item formatted within their paragraph;  \item usually labelled with letters;  and \item usually have the final
		  item prefixed with `and' or 
		  `or'\thinspace\end{inparaenum}, like this example.
\end{quote}\end{example}

See \chaptername~\ref{typo} for details of the
	  font-changing commands used in the optional argument to
	  \env{inparaenum}.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{15}List practice}
\subsubsection*{List practice}
Add some lists to your document. Pick any two of the
            ones described here to practise with.

If you successfully installed
            \package{paralist} in Exercise~\ref{insttest} then you can use inline lists as
            described in \S\thinspace\ref{inlinelists}.
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Reference lists and segmented lists}

Reference lists are visually indistinguishable from
          numbered or lettered lists, but the numbering or lettering
          does \emph{not} imply a sequence. The numbers
          or letters are just used as labels so that the items can be
          referred to from elsewhere in the text (as in `see
            item 501(c)3'). In this sense they are really a
          kind of sub-sectional division, and \LaTeX{}'s
          \command{paragraph} or
          \command{subparagraph} commands (with appropriate
          renumbering) would probably be a far better solution than
          using a list. Label them and refer to them with
          \command{label} and \command{ref} as for
          any other cross-reference (see \S\thinspace\ref{xrefs}).

Segmented lists are a highly specialised structure and
          outside the scope of this document. For details of their
          usage, see the the chapter `Segmentation and
            Alignment' in \titlecite{teiguide}.
\subsection{Lists within lists}
\label{numberschemes}

You can start a new list environment within the item of
          an existing list, so you can embed one list inside another
          up to four deep. The lists can be of any type, so you can
          have a description list containing an item in which there is
          a numbered sub-list, within which there is an item
          containing a bulleted sub-sub-list. 
\begin{enumerate}\item 
by default an outer enumerated list is numbered in
              Arabic numerals;
\begin{enumerate}\item 
an embedded enumerated list is lettered in
                  lowercase;
\begin{enumerate}\item 
a third level is numbered in lowercase Roman
                      numerals;
\begin{enumerate}\item 
the fourth level uses uppercase
                          alphabetic letters.

\end{enumerate}

\end{enumerate}

\end{enumerate}

\end{enumerate}

Multiple embedded lists automatically change the bullet
          or numbering scheme so that the levels don't get
          confused, and the spacing between levels is adjusted to
          become fractionally tighter for more deeply nested
          levels.

These are only defaults and can easily be changed by
          redefining the relevant set of values. You could also add a
          fifth and further levels, although I suspect that would mean
          your document structure needed some careful analysis, as
          lists embedded five deep will probably confuse your
          readers.

The values for lists come in pairs: for each level there
	  is a counter to count the items and a command to produce the
	  label:\footnote{In fact, any time you define a counter in \LaTeX{},
	      you automatically get a command to reproduce its value.
	      So if you defined a new counter \counter{example} to use in a teaching
	      book, by saying \url+\newcounter{example}+,
	      that automatically makes available the command
	      \url+\theexample+ for use when you want to
	      display the current value of \counter{example}.}
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{rcll}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Level}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Default}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Counter}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Label command}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
1&digit.&\counter{enumi}&\command{theenumi}\\
2&(letter)&\counter{enumii}&\command{theenumii}\\
3&roman.&\counter{enumiii}&\command{theenumiii}\\
4&LETTER.&\counter{enumiv}&\command{theenumiv}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
Note that each counter and command ends with the Roman
          numeral value of its level (this is to overcome the rule
          that \LaTeX{} commands can only be made of
          letters\mdash{}digits wouldn't work here). To
          change the format of a numbered list item counter, just
          renew the meaning of its label:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}
\renewcommand{\theenumii}{\roman{enumii}}
\renewcommand{\theenumiii}{\arabic{enumiii}}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\noindent \label{thecounter}%
This would make the
          outermost list use uppercase letters, the second level use
          lowercase roman, and the third level use ordinary Arabic
          numerals. The fourth level would remain unaffected.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{16}Nesting}
\subsubsection*{Nesting}
Extend your use of lists by nesting one type inside a
            different one.
\end{exercise}
\begin{warning}
\subsubsection*{Lists: a caution to the unwary}
Treat lists with care: people sometimes use tables for
            labelled information which is really a list and would be
            better handled as such. They often do this because their
            wordprocessor has no way to do what they want (usually to
            place the item label level with the description or
            explanation) \emph{except} by using a table,
            hence they are misled into believing that their text is
            really a table when it's actually not.
\end{warning}
\section{Tables}
\label{tables}
\index{tables}
Tabular typesetting is the most complex and time-consuming
	of all textual features to get right. This holds true whether
	you are typing in plain-text form, using a wordprocessor,
	using \LaTeX{}, using HTML\index{HTML@HTML} or
	XML\index{XML@XML}, using a DTP\index{DTP@DTP} system, or some other text-handling
	package. Fortunately, \LaTeX{} provides a
	table model with a mixture of defaults and configurability to
	let it produce very high quality tables with a minimum of
	effort.
\begin{warning}
\subsubsection*{Terminology}
\LaTeX{}, in common with standard typesetting
          practice, uses the word `Table' to
          mean a formal textual feature, numbered and with a caption,
          referred to from the text (as in `See
            Table 5'). Sometimes you can get
          `informal' tables, which simply occur
          between two paragraphs, without caption or number.

The arrangement of information in rows and columns
          \emph{within} either of these structures is
          called a `tabulation' or
          `tabular matter'.

It is important to keep this distinction firmly in mind
          for this section.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Floats}
\label{floats}
\index{floats}
Tables and Figures are what printers refer to as
          `floats'. This means they are not
          part of the normal stream of text, but separate entities,
          positioned in a part of the page to themselves (top, middle,
          bottom, left, right, or wherever the designer specifies).
          They always have a caption describing them and they are
          always numbered so they can be referred to from elsewhere in
          the text.

\LaTeX{} automatically floats Tables and Figures,
          depending on how much space is left on the page at the point
          that they are processed. If there is not enough room on the
          current page, the float is moved to the top of the next
          page. This can be changed by moving the Table or Figure
          definition to an earlier or later point in the text, or by
          adjusting some of the parameters which control automatic
          floating.

Authors sometimes have many floats occurring in rapid
	  succession, which raises the problem of how they are
	  supposed to fit on the page and still leave room for text.
	  In this case, \LaTeX{} stacks them all up and prints them
	  together if possible, or leaves them to the end of the
	  chapter in protest. The skill is to space them out within
	  your text so that they intrude neither on the thread of your
	  argument or discussion, nor on the visual balance of the
	  typeset pages. But this is a skill few authors have, and
	  it's one point at which professional typographic advice
	  or manual intervention may be needed.

There is a \env{float} package which lets
          you create new classes of floating object (perhaps Examples
          or Exercises).
\subsection{Formal tables}

To create a \LaTeX{} Table, use the \env{table}
          environment containing a \command{caption} command
          where you type the caption, and a \command{label}
          command to give the Table a label by which you can refer to
          it.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{table}
\caption{Project expenditure to year-end 2006}
\label{ye2006exp}
...
\end{table}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Numbering is automatic, but the \command{label}
	  command \emph{must follow} the
	  \command{caption} command, not precede it. The
	  numbering automatically includes the chapter number in
	  document classes where this is appropriate (but this can of
	  course be overridden). The \command{caption}
	  command has an optional argument to provide a short caption
	  if the full caption would be too long for the List of Tables (\S\thinspace\ref{loflot}):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\caption[Something short]{Some very long caption that 
will only look reasonable in the full figure.}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{Tabular matter}

Within a Table, you can either typeset the tabular
          matter using \LaTeX{}, or include a table captured as an
          image from elsewhere.  We will see how to include images in
          \S\thinspace\ref{figures} on Figures, where they are more
          common.

To typeset tabular matter, use the
          \env{tabular} environment. The 
          \verb+\begin{tabular}+ command must be followed
          by a compulsory second argument in curly braces giving the
          alignment of the columns. These are specified for each
          column using one of single letters \verb+l+,
        \verb+c+, and \verb+r+ for
          left-aligned, centered, or right-aligned text, or the letter
          \verb+p+ followed by a width argument if you
          want a long entry to wrap to several lines (a miniature
          paragraph as a single cell on each row).

\TeX{}'s original tabular settings were designed
	  for classical numerical tabulations, where each cell
	  contains a single value. The \verb+p+
	  specification allows a cell to be a miniature paragraph set
	  to a specific width. These are \verb+p+ column
	  specifications are \emph{not} multi-row
	  entries, they are single cells which contain multiple lines
	  of typesetting: the distinction is very important.
	  Auto-adjusting cell sizes like you see in a Web browser (the
	  `Netscape' table model) are possible
	  with the \package{tabularx} package, but
	  these are often inelegant in print, however convenient they
	  may be in a Web browser.

The \package{array} package provides for
	  many other typographic variations such as left-aligned,
	  right-aligned, and centred multi-line columns, and  other
	  packages provide decimal-aligned columns, row-spanning and
	  column-spanning, multi-page, and rotated (landscape format)
	  tables.
\begin{table}[b]\small \caption{\small Project expenditure to year-end 2006}
\label{ye2006exp}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clr}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape }&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Item}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape \EUR{} Amount}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
a)&Salaries (2 research assistants)&28,000\\
&Conference fees and travel expenses&14,228\\
&Computer equipment (5 workstations)&17,493\\
&Software&3,562\\
b)&Rent, light, heat, etc.&1,500\\
\cline{3-3}\vrule height1.1em width0pt \textbf{}&\textbf{Total}&\textbf{64,783}\\
\end{tabular}
\par\smallskip\footnotesize
The Institute also contributes to (a) and
              (b).\end{center}
\end{table}

As an example, a tabular setting with three columns, the
          first one centered, the second left-aligned, and the third
          one right-aligned, would therefore be specified as
          \verb+{clr}+, as in the example below. Note the
          use of indentation to make the elements of the table clear
          for editing, and note also how the typeset formatting is
          unaffected by this (see Table~\ref{ye2006exp}).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{table}
  \caption{Project expenditure to year-end 2006}
  \label{ye2006exp}
  \begin{center}
    \begin{tabular}{clr}
      &Item&\EUR\ Amount\\
    \hline
      a)&Salaries (2 research assistants)&28,000\\
      &Conference fees and travel expenses&14,228\\
      &Computer equipment (5 workstations)&17,493\\
      &Software&3,562\\
      b)&Rent, light, heat, etc.&1,500\\\cline{3-3}
      &Total&64,783
    \end{tabular}
    \par\medskip\footnotesize
The Institute also contributes to (a) and (b).
  \end{center}
\end{table}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You do not need to format the tabular data in your
          editor: \LaTeX{} does this for you when it typesets the
          table, using the column specifications you provided. Extra
          space is automatically added between columns, and can be
          adjusted by changing the \length{tabcolsep} dimension.
          \person{Takaaki Ota} provides an excellent Tables mode for
          \product{Emacs} which provides a
          spreadsheet-like interface and can generate \LaTeX{} table
          source code (see Figure~\ref{tabmode}).
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Tables mode for
            \emph{Emacs}}
\label{tabmode}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{table}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

It is conventional to centre the tabular setting within
          the Table, using the \env{center} environment
          (note US spelling) or the \command{centering}
          command. The entries for each cell are separated by an
          ampersand character (\verb+&+) and the end
          of a row is marked by
          the double-backslash (\verb+\\+).

The \command{hline} command draws a rule across
          all columns and the \command{cline} command draws a
          rule across a range of columns (here, under column three
          only\mdash{}the argument needs a range). If used, these commands \emph{follow}
          the
          \verb+\\+ of the row they apply to. There are
          some extra formatting commands after the tabular material in
          the example. These are explained in
          \chaptername~\ref{typo}.

If there is no data for a cell, just don't type
          anything\mdash{}but you still need the
          \verb+&+ separating it from the next
          column's data. The astute reader will already have
          deduced that for a table of
          \(n\) columns, there must always be
          \(n\ifmmode-\else$-$\fi{}1\) ampersands in each row. The exception to
          this is when the  \command{multicolumn} command is
          used to create cells which span multiple columns. There is
          also a package (\env{multirow}) to enable
          cells to span multiple rows, but both of these techniques
          are outside the scope of this document.
\subsection{Tabular techniques for alignment}

As mentioned earlier, it's also perfectly possible
          to typeset tabular matter outside a formal Table, where you
          want to lay out an informal tabulation between paragraphs
          where a fully floating formal Table would be unnecessary
          (these are usually quite short: there are several of them in
          this document).

Tabular mode can also be used wherever you need to align
          material side by side, such as in designing letterheads,
          where you may want your company logo and address on one side
          and some other information on the other.

By default, \LaTeX{} typesets
          \env{tabular} environments inline to the
          surrounding text, so if you want your alignment displayed by
          itself, put it inside a positioning environment like
          \env{center},
          \env{flushright}, or
          \env{flushleft}, or leave a blank line or
          \command{par} before and after so it gets typeset
          separately.

There is much more to tabular setting:
          full details are in the manuals mentioned in
          the last paragraph of the Foreword on p.\thinspace\pageref{docs}. One final note to remind you of the
          automated crossreferencing features: because the example
          table is labelled, it can be referenced from anywhere in the
          document as Table~\ref{ye2006exp} just by using
          \verb+\ref{ye2006exp}+, regardless of how much
          the surrounding document or structure is moved or
          edited.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{17}Create a tabulation}
\subsubsection*{Create a tabulation}
Create one of the following in your document:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
a formal Table with a caption showing the number
                of people in your class broken down by age and
                sex;

\item 
an informal tabulation showing the price for three
                products;

\item 
the logo \setlength{\fboxsep}{-3pt}\setlength{\fboxrule}{.4pt} 
                  \fbox{\begin{tabular}{cc}\tiny YEAR\\[-.8em]\tiny 2
                  0 0 0\vrule depth1em
                  width0pt\end{tabular}} (hint: \S\thinspace\ref{fbox})

\end{itemize}
\end{exercise}
\section{Figures}
\label{figures}
\index{figures}\index{floats}
As explained in \S\thinspace\ref{floats}, Figures and
        Tables float to a vacant part of the page, as they are not
        part of the sequence of sentences making up your text, but
        illustrative objects that you refer to.

Figures can contain text, diagrams, pictures, or any other
        kind of illustration. To create a figure, use the
        \env{figure} environment: like Tables, they
        automatically get numbered, and must include a caption (with a
        label after the caption, if needed, exactly the same as for
        Tables)
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{figure}
\caption{Total variable overhead variance (after 
         \citeauthor[p.191]{bull}}
\label{workeff}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=.75\columnwidth]{diagram}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Total variable overhead variance (after \citeauthoryear{bull} \textsl{p.191})}
\label{workeff}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{diagram}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

You can see that the structure is very similar to the
        \env{table} environment, but in this case we
        have a graphic included. Details of this command
        (\command{includegraphics}) are in the next section.
        Details of the bibliographic citation mechanism are in \S\thinspace\ref{bib}

The content of the Figure could of course also be textual,
        in the form of a list or a text diagram. \LaTeX{} has a simple
        drawing environment called \env{picture}, which
        lets you create a limited set of lines and curves, but for a
        diagram of any complexity, you should use a standard vector
        drawing program (see \S\thinspace\ref{graphictypes}).
\section{Images}
\label{images}
\index{images}\index{graphics}
Images (graphics) can be included anywhere in a \LaTeX{}
	document, although in most cases of formal documents they will
	occur in Figures (see preceding section). To use graphics, you
	need to use the \package{graphicx} package in
	your preamble:
	\verb+\usepackage{graphicx}+\footnote{You may find a lot of old files which use a package
	    called \package{epsf}. Don't use it.
	    It's obsolete.}

This enables the command
	\command{includegraphics} which is used to insert an
	image in the document. The command is followed by the name of
	your graphics file \emph{without the filetype},
	for example: \verb+\includegraphics{myhouse}+
	(we'll see in a minute why you don't include the
	filetype).

In most cases you should just make sure the image file is
	in the same folder (directory) as the document you use it in.
	This avoids a lot of messing around remembering where you put
	the files. If you have images you want to use in several
	different documents in different places on your disk, there is
	a way to tell \LaTeX{} where to look (see \S\thinspace\ref{graphicsdir}).

For standard \LaTeX{} with
	\product{dvips}, graphics files
	\emph{must} be in Encapsulated
	  PostScript (EPS)\index{EPS@EPS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!EPS@EPS|textbf} format: this has been the publishing
	industry standard for portable graphics for many years, and no
	other format will work portably in standard \LaTeX{}.\footnote{Some distributions of \TeX{} systems allow other
	    formats to be used, such as PNG\index{PNG@PNG},
	    Microsoft Bitmap (BMP)\index{BMP@BMP|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!BMP@BMP|textbf} files,
	    Hewlett-Packard's Printer Control
	      Language (PCL)\index{PCL@PCL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PCL@PCL|textbf} files, and others; but you cannot
	    send such documents to other \LaTeX{} users and expect
	    them to work if they don't have the same distribution
	    installed as you have. Stick to EPS\index{EPS@EPS}.}

All good graphics packages can save images as EPS\index{EPS@EPS}, but be very careful because some
	packages, especially on Microsoft Windows platforms, use a
	very poor quality driver, which creates very poor quality
	EPS\index{EPS@EPS} files. If in doubt, check with
	an expert. If you find an EPS\index{EPS@EPS}
	graphic doesn't print, the chances are it's been
	badly made by the graphics software. Download Adobe's own
	PostScript driver from their Web site instead.

For \product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, graphics files
	can be in Portable Network
	  Graphic (PNG)\index{PNG@PNG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PNG@PNG|textbf}, Joint Photographic
	  Experts Group (JPG)\index{JPG@JPG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!JPG@JPG|textbf}, or PDF\index{PDF@PDF}
	format, \emph{not} EPS\index{EPS@EPS}. This means if you want to use both
	standard \LaTeX{} as well
	as \product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, you need to keep
	your graphics in two formats, EPS\index{EPS@EPS}
	and one of the others. This is why you don't include the
	filetype in the filename you give with
	\command{includegraphics}: \LaTeX{} will assume
	EPS\index{EPS@EPS} and
	\product{pdf\LaTeX{}} will look for JPG\index{JPG@JPG}, PNG\index{PNG@PNG} or
	PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files matching the name.

The \command{includegraphics} command can take
	optional arguments within square brackets before the filename
	to specify either the height or width, and the other dimension
	will automatically change to scale. If you specify both, the
	image will be distorted to fit. You can scale an image by a
	factor instead of specifying height or width; clip it to
	specified coordinates; and rotate it in either direction.
	Multiple optional arguments are separated with commas.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=3cm]{twithcat}
\end{center}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=3cm]{twithcat}
\end{center}
\end{quote}\end{example}

For details of all the arguments, see the documentation on
	the \package{graphicx} package or a copy of the
	\titlecite{companion}. This package also
	includes commands to \raisebox{1ex}{\rotatebox{180}{rotate}}, 
	\scalebox{-1}[1]{mirror}, and
	\scalebox{2}[1]{scale} text.
	\index{rotate}\index{mirror}\index{scale}

It is in fact possible to tell \LaTeX{} to generate the
	right file format by itself, but this requires an external
	command-line graphics converter, and as it gets done afresh
	each time, it slows things down rather a lot.

EPS\index{EPS@EPS} files, especially bitmaps,
	can be very large indeed, because they are stored in ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} format. 
        \person{Staszek Wawrykiewicz} has drawn my attention to a useful program to
	overcome this, called \product{cep}
	(`Compressed Encapsulated Postscript') available
	from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} in the
	\url+support/pstools+ directory, which can
	compress EPS\index{EPS@EPS} files to a fraction of
	their original size. The original file can be replaced by the
	new smaller version and still used directly with
	\command{includegraphics}.
\subsection{Making images}
\label{graphictypes}

There are two types of image: bitmaps and
	  vectors.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Bitmaps]
Bitmap images are made of coloured dots, so if you
		enlarge them, they go jagged at the edges, and if you
		shrink them, they go blurry. Bitmaps are fine for
		photographs, where every dot is a different colour,
		and no-one will notice if you don't shrink or enlarge
		too much. Bitmaps for diagrams and drawings, however,
		are almost always the wrong choice, and
		often disastrously bad.
\item[\sffamily Vectors]
Vector drawings are made from instructions (eg
		`draw this from here to here, using a line this
		  thick'). They can be enlarged or shrunk as
		much as you like, and never lose accuracy, because
		they \emph{get redrawn} automatically at
		any size. You can't do photographs as vectors, but
		it's the only acceptable method for drawings or
		diagrams.
\end{description}

Vector graphic packages are also better suited for
	  saving your image directly in EPS\index{EPS@EPS}
	  or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} format (both of which use
	  vectors internally). All the major graphics-generating
	  packages in all disciplines output vector formats:
	  \product{AutoCAD},
	  \product{ChemDraw},
	  \product{MathCAD},
	  \product{Maple},
	  \product{Mathematica},
	  \product{ArcInfo}, and so on. EPS\index{EPS@EPS} is the universally-accepted format
	  for creating vector graphics for publication, with PDF\index{PDF@PDF} a close second.  Most of the major
	  graphics (drawing) packages can also save as EPS\index{EPS@EPS}, such as
	  \product{PhotoShop}, \product{PaintShop
	    Pro}, Adobe
	  \product{Illustrator}, Corel
	  \product{Draw}, and
	  \product{GIMP}. There are also some free
	  vector plotting and diagramming packages available like
	  \product{tkPaint} and
	  \product{GNUplot} which do the same. Never,
	  ever (except in the direst necessity) save any
	  \emph{diagram} as a bitmap.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The diagram from Figure~\ref{workeff} shrunk and
	  enlarged}
\begin{center}
\fbox{\includegraphics[width=3.95cm]{diagram}}\quad\fbox{\includegraphics[scale=2,viewport=250 250 300 300,clip]{diagram}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Bitmap formats like JPG\index{JPG@JPG} and
	  PNG\index{PNG@PNG} are ideal for photographs, as
	  they are also able to compress the data substantially
	  without too much loss of quality. However, compressed
	  formats are bad for screenshots, if you are documenting
	  computer tasks, because too much compression makes them
	  blurry. The popular Graphics Interchange
	    Format (GIF)\index{GIF@GIF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!GIF@GIF|textbf} is good for screenshots, but is not
	  supported by \TeX{}: use PNG\index{PNG@PNG}
	  instead, with the compression turned down to minimum. Avoid
	  uncompressible formats like BMP\index{BMP@BMP} as
	  they produce enormous and unmanageable files. The Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)\index{TIFF@TIFF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TIFF@TIFF|textbf}, popular with
	  graphic designers, should also be avoided because far too
	  many companies have designed and implemented non-standard,
	  conflicting, proprietary extensions to the format, making it
	  virtually useless for transfer between different types of
	  computers (except in faxes, where it's still used in a
	  much stricter version).
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{18}Adding pictures}
\subsubsection*{Adding pictures}
Add \verb+\usepackage{graphicx}+ to the
	    preamble of your document, and copy or download an image
	    you want to include. Make sure it is a JPG\index{JPG@JPG}, PNG\index{PNG@PNG}, or
	    PDF\index{PDF@PDF} image if you use
	    \product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, or an EPS\index{EPS@EPS} image if you use standard
	    \LaTeX{}.

Add \command{includegraphics} and the
	    filename in curly braces (without the filetype), and
	    process the document and preview or print it.

Make it into a figure following the example in \S\thinspace\ref{figures}.

Be aware that some DVI\index{DVI@DVI}
	    previewers are not able to display all types of graphics,
	    and some cannot display colour. For best results, use
	    PDF\index{PDF@PDF} or
	    PostScript\index{PostScript} preview.
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Graphics storage}
\label{graphicsdir}

I mentioned earlier that there was a way to tell
	  \LaTeX{} where to look if you had stored images centrally
	  for use in many different documents. The answer is in a
	  command \command{graphicspath} which you supply
	  with an argument giving the name of an additional directory
	  path you want searched when a file uses the
	  \command{includegraphics} command, for
	  example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\graphicspath{c:\mypict~1\camera}
\graphicspath{/var/lib/images}
\graphicspath{HardDisk:Documents:Reports:Pictures}
	\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

I've used the `safe'
	  (MS-DOS) form of the Windows \url+My
	    Pictures+ folder because it's A Bad Idea to
	  use directory names containing spaces (see the panel `Picking suitable filenames' \testpage[above]{filenames}). Using
	  \command{graphicspath} does make your file less
	  portable, though, because file paths tend to be specific
	  both to an operating system and to your computer, like the
	  examples above.
\section{Verbatim text}
\label{verbatim}
\index{verbatim text}
If you are documenting computer procedures, you probably
        need fixed-width type for examples of programming or data
        input or output. Even if you are writing about completely
        non-computer topics, you may often want to quote a URI\index{URI@URI} or email address which needs to be
        typeset specially. It is particularly important in these two
        examples to avoid hyphenating them if they have to break over
        a line-end, because the hyphen might be taken by the user as a
        part of the address.

Standard \LaTeX{} includes two features for handling
        fixed-format text, and there are many more available in
        packages.
\subsection{Inline verbatim}
\label{inlineverb}

To specify a word or phrase as verbatim text in
          typewriter type within a sentence, use the special command
          \command{verb}, followed by your piece of text
          surrounded by any suitable character which does
          \emph{not} occur in the text itself. This is a
          very rare exception to the rule that arguments go in curly
          braces. I often use the plus sign for this, for example to
          show a \LaTeX{} command, I type
        \verb`\verb+\includegraphics[width=3in]{myhouse}+`
          in order to display
        \verb+\includegraphics[width=3in]{myhouse}+, but
          sometimes I use the 
          \textbf{\textit{grave accent}}\label{grave}\index{grave accent@\textbf{\textit{grave accent}}} (\textbf{\textit{backtick}}\label{backtick}\index{backtick@\textbf{\textit{backtick}}} or open-quote) or the
          vertical bar when the phrase already has a plus sign in it,
          like \verb`\verb|\(y=a+2x^2\)|` when
          illustrating the \LaTeX{} equation
          \verb|\(y=a+x^2\)|.

This command has the advantage that it turns off all
          special characters (see \S\thinspace\ref{specials}) except
          the one you use as the delimiter, so you can easily quote
          sequences of characters in any computer syntax without
          problems. However, \LaTeX{} will never break the argument of
          \command{verb} at a line-end when formatting a
          paragraph, even if it contains spaces, so if it happens to
          be long, and falls towards the end of a line, it will stick
          out into the margin. See \S\thinspace\ref{hyph} for more
          information on line-ends and hyphenation.

The \package{url} package avoids this by
          providing the command \command{url} which works in
          the same way as \command{verb}, with the argument
          enclosed in a pair of characters, but performs a hyphenless
          break at punctuation characters, as in \urlhttp://www.ucc.ie:8080/cocoon/cc/ docs/siteowner.xmlhttp://www.ucc.ie:8080/cocoon/cc/docs/siteowner.xmlhttp://www.ucc.ie:8080/cocoon/cc/ docs/siteowner.xml. 
          It was designed for Web URI\index{URI@URI}s,\footnote{The original term Uniform Resource
                Locator (URL)\index{URL@URL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!URL@URL|textbf} is now strongly deprecated in the Web
              community in favour of the more accurate Uniform Resource Indicator (URI)\index{URI@URI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!URI@URI|textbf}. For
              details see \url+http://www.w3.org/Addressing/+.
              Unfortunately the older term still persists, especially
              in \LaTeX{} and XML\index{XML@XML}
              markup.} so it understands their syntax and will never
          break mid-way through an unpunctuated word, only at slashes
          and full points. Bear in mind, however, that spaces are
          forbidden in URI\index{URI@URI}s, so using spaces
          in \command{url} arguments will fail, as will using
          other non-URI\index{URI@URI}-valid
          characters.
\subsection{Display verbatim}

For longer (multiline) chunks of fixed-format text, use
          the \env{verbatim} environment:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\begin{document}

\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle

\end{document}
\end{verbatim}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Like \command{verb}, this turns off all special
          characters, so you can include anything at all in the
          verbatim text except the exact line
          \verb+\end{verbatim}+

For more control over formatting, however, I recommend
	  the use of the \package{fancyvrb} package,
	  which provides a \env{Verbatim} environment
	  (note the capital letter) which lets you draw a rule round
	  the verbatim text, change the font size, and even have
	  typographic effects inside the \env{Verbatim}
	  environment. It can also be used in conjunction with the
	  \package{fancybox} package (see \S\thinspace\ref{fancybox}), and it can add reference line numbers
	  (useful for chunks of data or programming), and it can even
	  include entire external files.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{19}Try some fixed-format text}
\subsubsection*{Try some fixed-format text}
Add your email address and home page URI\index{URI@URI} using the \command{verb}
            and \command{url} commands. You'll need to
            \verb+\usepackage{url}+ for the latter.

If you know some programming, try a few lines enclosed
            in \env{verbatim} and
            \env{Verbatim} environments.
\end{exercise}
\section{Boxes, sidebars, and panels}
\label{boxes}
\index{boxes}\index{sidebars}\index{panels}
\LaTeX{}, like most typesetting systems, works by setting
        text into boxes. The default box is the width of the current
        page, and works like an old compositor's galley (tray)
        from the days of metal type: it accumulates typeset text until
        it's a bit longer than the specified page height. At this
        stage \LaTeX{} works out how much of it really will fit on a
        page, snips it off and ships it out to the DVI\index{DVI@DVI} or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file,
        and puts the rest back into the galley to accumulate towards
        the following page.
\subsection{Boxes of text}
\label{boxtext}

Because of this `box' model,
          \LaTeX{} can typeset any text into a box of any width
          wherever on the page you need it.

The simplest command for small amounts of text is
          \command{parbox}. This command needs two arguments
          in curly braces: the first is the width you want the text
          set to, and the second is the text itself, for
          example:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\parbox{1in}{Please make sure you send in your 
             completed forms by January 1st 
             next year, or the penalty clause 
             2(a) will apply}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{p{1in}}
Please make sure you send in your completed
                    forms by January 1st next year, or the penalty
                    clause 2(a) will apply\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup\end{quote}\end{example}

The text is typeset to the required width, and the box
          is extended downwards for as long as is required to fit the
          text. Note that the baseline of a \command{parbox}
          is set to the midpoint of the box; that is, if you include a
          \command{parbox} in mid-sentence, the centre of the
          box will be lined up with the line of type currently being
          set.\parbox{1cm}{
{\scriptsize{}\selectfont{}Like
                this small paragraph.\par}
} You can specify that it should be the top or
          bottom by adding an optional \opt{t} or
          \opt{b} in square brackets before the width. For
          example,
          \verb+\parbox[t]{1in}{...}+ will produce
          \parbox[t]{1in}{
a box with the baseline aligned with the top line of
              the text in the box.
}

Notice that when setting very narrow measures with type
          that is too large, the spacing may become uneven and there
          may be too much hyphenation. Either use
          \command{raggedright} or reduce the type size, or
          (in extreme cases) reword the text or break each line by
          hand. It is rare for \LaTeX{} to need this: the example above
          was deliberately chosen to be obtuse as an
          illustration.

Where the contents is more extensive or more
          complicated, you can use the \env{minipage}
          environment.

Within this you can use virtually everything
          that occurs in normal text (e.g. lists, paragraphs,
          tabulations, etc.) with the exception of floats like
          tables and figures. The \env{minipage}
          environment has an argument just like
          \command{parbox} does, and it means the same: the
          width you want the text set to.

Note that in \env{minipage}s and
          \command{parbox}es, the paragraph indentation
          (\length{parindent}) is
          reset to zero. If you need to change it, set it inside the
          \env{minipage} or \command{parbox}
          using the \command{setlength} command (see \S\thinspace\ref{paragraphs}).
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{minipage}{3in}
Please make sure you send in your completed 
forms by January 1st next year, or the 
penalty clause 2(a) will apply.
\begin{itemize}
\item Incomplete forms will be returned to 
you unprocessed.
\item Forms must be accompanied by the 
correct fee.
\item There is no appeal. The adjudicators' 
decision is final.
\end{itemize}
\end{minipage}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{p{3in}}
Please make sure you send in your
                      completed forms by January 1st next year, or the
                      penalty clause 2(a) will
                      apply.\begin{itemize}
\item 
Incomplete forms will be returned to you
                          unprocessed.

\item 
Forms must be accompanied by the correct
                          fee.

\item 
There is no appeal. The
                          adjudicators' decision is final.

\end{itemize}
\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup\end{quote}\end{example}

There are two other ways of typesetting text to widths
	  other than the normal text width: you can use a one-row,
	  one-cell \env{tabular} environment with the
	  \verb+p+ column type specification, or you
	  can use the \command{vbox} command, which is raw
	  \TeX{}, and outside the scope of this document.
\subsection{Framed boxes}
\label{fbox}

To put a frame round \fbox{some text}, use the
          \command{fbox} command:
          \verb+\fbox{some text}+. This works for a few
          words in mid-line, but the framed box and its contents
          won't break over the end of a line. To typeset
          multiline text in a box, put it in a
          \command{parbox}, or use a
          \env{minipage} or
          \env{tabular} environment as described above,
          and enclose the whole thing in a
          \command{fbox}.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\fbox{\begin{minipage}{3in}
This multiline text is more flexible than 
a tabular setting:
\begin{itemize}
\item it can contain any type of normal 
\LaTeX{} typesetting;
\item it can be any specified width;
\item it can even have its own 
footnotes\footnote{Like this}.
\end{itemize}
\end{minipage}}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{center}\setlength{\fboxrule}{1pt}
\begin{minipage}{3in}

This multiline text is more flexible than a
                tabular setting:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
it can contain any type of normal \LaTeX{}
                    typesetting;

\item 
it can be any specified width;

\item 
it can even have its own footnotes.\footnote{Like this.}

\end{itemize}
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
\end{quote}\end{example}

The spacing between text and box is controlled by the
          value of \length{fboxsep}, and
          the thickness of the line by \length{fboxrule}. The following values
          were used above:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\fboxsep}{1em}
\setlength{\fboxrule}{2pt}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

As we saw before, setting justified text in narrow
	  measures will produce poor spacing: either use the
	  \command{raggedright} command, or change the font
	  size, or add explicit extra hyphenation points.

Note the \verb+\begin{tabular}+ and
	  \verb+\begin{minipage}+ commands still need the
	  width specifying: in the case of the
	  \verb+\begin{tabular}+ by the use of the
	  \verb+p+ column type with its width
	  specification, and in the case of
	  \verb+\begin{minipage}+ by the second
	  argument.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\fbox{\begin{tabular}{p{1in}}
Multiline text in a box typeset using 
\textsf{tabular}
\end{tabular}}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\setlength{\tabcolsep}{6pt}
\begin{tabular}{|p{1in}|}\hline
Multiline text in a box typeset using
                    \package{tabular}\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup\end{quote}\end{example}
\subsection{Sidebars and panels}
\label{fancybox}

The \package{fancybox} package lets you
          extend the principle of \command{fbox} with
          commands to surround text in square, oval (round-cornered),
          and drop-shadow boxes (e.g. \command{ovalbox},
          \command{shadowbox}, etc.: see the documentation
          for details).

You can create panels of any size with these borders by
          using the \env{minipage} environment to
          typeset the text inside a special \env{Sbox}
          environment which \package{fancybox} defines.
          The \env{minipage} formats the text but the
          \env{Sbox} `captures'
          it, allowing you to put the frame round it as it
          prints.

The printed version of this document uses this extensively and
          there is a useful example shown in \S\thinspace\ref{macenv}.
\chapter{Textual tools}
\label{texttools}
\index{tools}
Every text-handling system needs to support a repertoire of
      tools for doing things with text. \LaTeX{} implements many
      dozens, of which a small selection of the most frequently used
      is given here:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
offset quotations (sometimes called `block
            quotes');

\item 
footnotes and end-notes;

\item 
marginal notes;

\item 
cross-references, both normal ones and bibliographic
          citations;

\item 
indexes and glossaries;

\item 
typesetting in multiple columns.

\end{itemize}
\section{Quotations}
\label{quotations}

Direct speech and short quotes within a sentence
	`like this' are done with simple
	quotation marks as described in \S\thinspace\ref{quotes}. Sometimes, however, you may want longer
	quotations set as a separate paragraph. Typically these are
	indented from the surrounding text. \LaTeX{} has two
	environments for doing this.

Such quotations are often set in a smaller size of type,
	although this is not the default, hence the use of the
	\command{small} command in the second example. The
	inclusion of the bibliographic citation at the end is
	optional: here it is done with a non-standard command
	\command{citequote} which I invented for this example
	(there is more about how to do things like this in \chaptername~\ref{macros}).
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily The {\fontseries{m}\selectfont{}\package{quote}}
            environment]
is for up to a line of text each per (short)
              quotation, with the whole thing indented from the
              previous paragraph but with no additional indentation on
              each quote;
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]

\begin{quote}
Do, Ronny, Do. \textit{Nancy Reagan}

Da Do Ron Ron. \textit{The Crystals}
\end{quote}
              \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

Do, Ronny, Do. {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}Nancy
                  Reagan}

Da Do Ron Ron. {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}The
                  Crystals}
\end{quote}\end{example}
\item[\sffamily The {\fontseries{m}\selectfont{}\package{quotation}}
            environment]
is for longer passages (a paragraph or more) of a
              single quotation, where not only is the block of text
              indented, but each paragraph of it also has its own
              extra indentation on the first line.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{quotation}\small
At the turn of the century William Davy, 
a Devonshire parson, finding errors in 
the first edition of his \titleof{davy}, 
asked for a new edition to be printed. 
His publisher refused and Davy purchased 
a press, type, and paper. He harnessed 
his gardener to the press and apprenticed 
his housemaid to the typesetting. After 
twelve years' work, a new edition 
of fourteen sets of twenty-six volumes 
was issued---which surely indicates that, 
when typomania is coupled with religious 
fervour, anything up to a miracle may be 
achieved.\citequote[p.76]{ryder}
\end{quotation}
              \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup 
At the turn of the century William Davy, a
                  Devonshire parson, finding errors in the first
                  edition of his \titlecite{davy},
                  asked for a new edition to be printed. His publisher
                  refused and Davy purchased a press, type, and paper.
                  He harnessed his gardener to the press and
                  apprenticed his housemaid to the typesetting. After
                  twelve years' work, a new edition of fourteen
                  sets of twenty-six volumes was issued---which surely
                  indicates that, when typomania is coupled with
                  religious fervour, anything up to a miracle may be
                  achieved.
\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent [\citeauthortitleyear{ryder}], p.76\end{quotation}
\end{quote}\end{example}
\end{description}
\section{Footnotes and end-notes}
\label{footnotes}
\index{footnotes}
The command \command{footnote}, followed by the
        text of the footnote in curly braces, will produce an
        auto-numbered footnote with a raised small number where you
        put the command, and the numbered text automatically printed
        at the foot of the page.\footnote{Like this.} The number is reset to 1 at the start of each
        chapter (but you can override that and make them run
        continuously throughout the document, or even restart at 1 on
        each page or section).

\LaTeX{} automatically creates room for the footnote, and
        automatically reformats it if you change your document in such
        a way that the point of attachment and the footnote would move
        to the next (or preceding) page.

Because of the way \LaTeX{} reads the whole footnote before
        doing anything with it, you can't use
        \command{verb} (\S\thinspace\ref{inlineverb}) alone
        in footnotes: either precede it with
        \command{protect} or use [abuse?] the
        \command{url} command instead, which you should be
        using for Web and email addresses in any case).

Footnotes inside minipages (see \S\thinspace\ref{boxes}) produce lettered notes instead of
        numbered ones, and they get printed at the bottom of the
        minipage, \emph{not} the bottom of the physical
        page (but this too can be changed).

There is a package to hold over your footnotes and make
	them print at the end of the chapter instead
	(\package{endnote}) or at the end of the whole
	document, and there is a package to print many short footnotes
	in several columns so they take up less space
	(\package{fnpara}). It is also possible to have
	several separate series of footnotes active simultaneously,
	which is useful in critical editions or commentaries: a
	numbered series may be used to refer to an original
	author's notes; a lettered series can be used for notes
	by a commentator or authority; and a third series is available
	for your own notes. It is also possible to format footnotes
	within footnotes.

If your footnotes are few and far between, you may want to
        use footnote symbols instead of numbers. You can do this by
        redefining the output of the footnote counter to be the
        \command{fnsymbol} command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\thefootnote{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There are also ways to refer more than once to the
        same footnote, and to defer the positioning of the footnote if
        it occurs in a float like a Table or Figure, where it might
        otherwise need to move to a different page.
\section{Marginal notes}
\label{marginals}
\index{marginal notes}
You can add marginal notes to your text\marginal{Like this.} instead of
        (or as well as) footnotes. You need to make sure that you have
        a wide-enough margin, of course: use the
        \package{geometry} package (see \S\thinspace\ref{colorpkg}) to allocate enough space, otherwise
        the notes will be too cramped. There are several packages to
        help with formatting marginal notes, but the simplest way is
        to define it yourself. Add this new command to your
        preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\marginal}[1]{%
      \leavevmode\marginpar{\tiny\raggedright#1\par}}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Then you can use \verb+\marginal{Some text}+\marginal{Some text where you need
	    it.} Be careful, however, because marginal
	notes are aligned with the line where the command starts, so a
	very long one followed too closely by another will cause
	\LaTeX{} to try and
	adjust the position so they don't overlap.

We're jumping ahead a bit here, as we haven't
        covered how to define your own commands yet. I won't even
        try to explain it here, although the attentive reader can
        probably deduce some of it by inspection. See \chaptername~\ref{macros} for more information about making up your
        own commands.
\section{Cross-references}
\label{xrefs}
\index{cross-references}
This is one of the most powerful features of \LaTeX{}. You
        can label any point in a document with a name you make up, and
        then refer to it by that name from anywhere else in the
        document, and \LaTeX{} will always work out the cross-reference
        number for you, no matter how much you edit the text or move
        it around.

A similar method is used to cite documents in a
        bibliography or list of references, and there are packages to
        sort and format these in the correct manner for different
        journals.
\subsection{Normal cross-references}
\label{normalxref}

You label a place in your document by using the command
          \command{label} followed by a short name you make
          up, in curly braces:\footnote{This section is labelled
              `\url+normalxref+', 
              for example.} we've already seen this done for labelling
          Figures and Tables.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\section{New Research}
\label{newstuff}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You can then refer to this point from anywhere in the
          same document with the command \command{ref}
          followed by the name you used, e.g.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
In \S~\ref{newstuff} there is a list of recent 
projects.
	  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

In \S\thinspace\ref{normalxref}
	    there is a list of recent projects.
\end{quote}\end{example}

(The \command{S} command produces a section
	  sign (\S) and the
	  \command{P} command produces a paragraph sign
	  (\P).)

If the label is in normal text, the reference will
          provide the current chapter or section number or both
          (depending on the current document
          class).\footnote{Thus I can
              refer here to
            \url+\ref{normalxref}+ and get the
              value \S\thinspace\ref{normalxref}.} If the label
          was inside a Table or Figure, the reference provides the
          Table number or Figure number prefixed by the chapter
          number. A label in an enumerated list will provide a
          reference to the item number. If there is no apparent
          structure to this part of the document, the reference will
          be null. Labels must be unique (that is, each value must
          occur only \emph{once} as a label within a
          single document), but you can have as many references to
          them as you like.

Note the use of the unbreakable space
          (\verb+~+) between the \command{ref}
          and the word before it. This prints a space but prevents the
          line ever breaking at that point, should it fall close to
          the end of a line.

The command \command{pageref} followed by any
          of your label values will provide the page number where the
          label occurred, regardless of the document structure. This
          makes it possible to refer to something by page number as
          well as its \command{ref} number, which is useful
          to readers in very long documents.

Unresolved references are printed as three question
          marks, and also cause a warning message at the end of the
          log file. There's never any harm in having
          \command{label}s you don't refer to, but using
          \command{ref} when you don't have a matching
          \command{label} is an error.
\subsection{Bibliographic references}
\label{bib}
\index{bibliographies}\index{references}
The mechanism used for references to reading lists and
          bibliographies is almost identical to that used for normal
          cross-references. Although it is possible to type the
          details of each citation manually, there is a companion
          program to \LaTeX{} called \BibTeX{}, which manages
          bibliographic references automatically. This reduces the time
          needed to maintain and format them, and dramatically
          improves accuracy. Using \BibTeX{} means you only ever have
          to type the bibliographic details of a work once. You can
          then cite it in any document you write, and it will get
          formatted automatically to the style you specify.
\subsubsection{Citing references}
\label{citation}

\BibTeX{} works exactly the same way as other
            bibliographic databases: you keep details of every
            document you want to refer to in a separate file, using
            \BibTeX{}'s own format (see example below). Many
            writers make a habit of adding the details of every book
            and article they read, so that when they write a document,
            these entries are always available for reference. You give
            each entry a short label, just like you do with normal
            cross-references (see \S\thinspace\ref{normalxref}), and
            it is this label you use to refer to in your own documents
            when you cite the work using the \command{cite}
            command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
...as has clearly been shown by Fothergill~\cite{fg}.
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

By default, this creates a cross-reference number in
            square brackets [1] which is a common style in the
            Natural Sciences (see \S\thinspace\ref{othercite} for
            details of how to change this). There are dozens of
            alternative citation formats in extra packages, including
            the popular author/year format:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
...as has clearly been shown 
by~\citeauthoryear{fg}.
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

\dots as has clearly been shown by \citeauthoryear{fg}.
\end{quote}\end{example}

Note that in this case you don't type the
            author's name because it is automatically extracted
            by \BibTeX{}. There are lots of variants on this technique
            in many packages, allowing you to phrase your sentences
            with references in as natural a way as possible, and rely
            on \BibTeX{} to insert the right data. (If you examine the
            source of this document you'll find I use some
            homebrew commands like \command{authorof} and
            \command{titleof} which I use for a similar
            purpose.)

To print the bibliographic listing (usually called
            `References' in articles and
            `Bibliography' in books and
            reports), add these two lines towards the end of your
            document, or wherever you want it printed, substituting
            the name of your own \BibTeX{} file and the name of your
            chosen bibliography style:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\bibliographystyle{ieeetr}
\bibliography{mybib}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{itemize}
\item 
The \command{bibliography} command is
                followed by the filename of your \BibTeX{} file
                \emph{without} the
                \url+.bib+ extension.

\item 
The \command{bibliographystyle} command
                is followed by the name of any of \LaTeX{}'s
                supported bibliography styles, of which there are many
                dozens available from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}.\footnote{The style
                    shown in the example here provides formatting
                    according to the specifications for Transactions
                    of the IEEE (revised).}

\end{itemize}

The styles \opt{plain} and
            \opt{alpha} are two common generic styles used
            for drafts. The example above uses Transactions of the Institute of Electrical
            and Electronics Engineers (IEEETR)\index{IEEETR@IEEETR|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!IEEETR@IEEETR|textbf}.
\subsubsection{Running \emph{bibtex}}
\label{bibtex}

When you run the \product{bibtex}
            program, the details of every document you have cited will
            be extracted from your database, formatted according to
            the style you specify, and stored in a temporary
            bibliographic (\url+.bbl+) file with a
            label corresponding to the one you used in your citation,
            ready for \LaTeX{} to use. This is entirely automatic: all
            you do is cite your references in your \LaTeX{} document
            using the labels you gave the entries in your \BibTeX{}
            file, and run the \product{bibtex}
            program.

After processing your file with \LaTeX{}, run \BibTeX{}
            on it by clicking on the \guiicon{\BibTeX{}}
            toolbar icon (\product{WinEdt}) or the
            \menuitem{TeX}{BibTeX
              File} menu entry
            (\product{Emacs}) or by typing the
            command \verb+bibtex+ followed by the name of
            your document (without the \url+.tex+
            extension). When you run \LaTeX{} again it uses the
            \url+.bbl+ file to add the references where
            you tell it to, and a subsequent run of \LaTeX{} will
            format the correct citation numbers (or author/year, or
            whatever format you are using).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
$ latex mybook
$ bibtex mybook
$ latex mybook
$ latex mybook
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Because of this three-stage process, you always get a
            warning message about an `unresolved
              reference' the first time you add a new
            reference to a previously uncited work. This will
            disappear after subsequent runs of
            \product{bibtex} and \LaTeX{}.

In practice, authors tend to run \LaTeX{} from time to
            time during writing anyway, so they can preview the
            document. Just run \BibTeX{} after adding a new
            \command{cite} command, and subsequent runs of
            \LaTeX{} will incrementally incorporate all references
            without you having to worry about it. You only need to
            follow the full formal sequence (\LaTeX{}, \BibTeX{},
            \LaTeX{}, \LaTeX{}) when you have finished writing and want
            to ensure that all references have been resolved.
\subsubsection{\BibTeX{} format}
\label{bibspec}

The format for the \BibTeX{} file is specified in the
            \BibTeX{} documentation (see \S\thinspace\ref{packagedoc}
            for how to find and print it). You create a file with a
            name ending in \url+.bib+, and add your
            entries, for example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
@book{fg,
   title        = {{An Innkeeper's Diary}},
   author       = {John Fothergill},
   edition      = {3rd},
   publisher    = {Penguin},
   year         = 1929,
   address      = {London}
}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There is a prescribed set of fields for each of a
            dozen or so types of document: book, article (in a
            journal), article (in a collection), chapter (in a book),
            thesis, report, paper (in a Proceedings), etc. Each entry
            identifies the document type after the
            `\verb+@+' sign,
            followed by the entry label that you make up, and then
            each field (in any order), using the format:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
keyword = {value},
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Most \TeX{}-sensitive editors have a \BibTeX{} mode
            which understands these entries.
            \product{Emacs} automatically uses its
            \url+bibtex-mode+ whenever you open a
            filename ending in \url+.bib+. When editing
            \BibTeX{} databases, the rules are simple:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
Omit the comma after the last field in the entry
                (only\mdash{}eg after \verb+{London}+ in
                the example).

\item 
Titles may have their case changed in some styles:
                to prevent this, enclose the title in double curly
                braces as in the example.

\item 
Values which are purely numeric (e.g. years)
                may omit the curly braces.

\item 
Fields can occur in any order but the format must
		otherwise be strictly observed.

\item 
Fields which are not used do not have to be
		included (so if your editor automatically inserts them
		as blank or prefixed by \verb+OPT+
		[optional], you can safely delete them as unused
		lines).

\end{itemize}

To help with this, there are several interfaces to
	    creating and maintaining \BibTeX{} files, such as
	    \product{tkbibtex} (see Figure~\ref{tkbibtex}), or
	    \product{pybliographic}.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small tk\BibTeX{}, one of several graphical interfaces to
              \BibTeX{} databases}
\label{tkbibtex}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{tkbibtex}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\subsubsection{Changing the layout}
\label{bibstyle}

To change the title printed over the reference
            listing, just change the value of
            \command{refname} (articles) or
            \command{bibname} (books and reports) by adding a
            line like this in your preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\bibname}{Reading List}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The formatting specifications (\BibTeX{} styles) are
            based on standard settings for journals and books from
            dozens of publishers: you just pick the one you want by
            name. The \url+texmf/bib/bst+ subdirectory
            of your installation contains the ones installed by
            default, and you can search on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}
            for others (look for \url+.bst+ files).
            Many of them are named after university press styles
            (e.g. \product{harvard},
            \product{oxford}) or the publisher or
            journal which specified them (e.g.
            \product{elsevier},
            \product{kluwer}, etc.).

Some of them have an accompanying package
            (\url+.sty+) file which
            you need to include with the normal
            \command{usepackage} command in your preamble. In
            this case the format may be distributed as
            \url+.dtx+ and \url+.ins+
            files and will need installing in the same way as any
            other package (see \S\thinspace\ref{pkginst}). Always read
            the documentation, because most of the formats are very
            specific to the journal they were designed for, and may have
            fairly absolute requirements.
\begin{warning}

If you are writing for a specific publisher, you
              should remember that the rules or formats are laid down
              by the typographic designer of that journal or
              publisher: you cannot arbitrarily change the format just
              because you don't happen to like it: it's not
              your choice!
\end{warning}

It is also possible to write your own \BibTeX{}
            (\url+.bst+) style files, although it uses
            a language of its own which really needs a computer
            science background to understand. However, this is
            rendered unnecessary in most cases: there is an extensive
            program (actually written in \LaTeX{}) called
            \product{makebst}, which makes
            \url+.bst+ files by asking you a (long)
            series of questions about exactly how you want your
            citations formatted. Just type 
            \verb+latex makebst+ in a command window, but
            give it a dummy run first, because some of the questions
            are very detailed, so you need to have thought through how
            you want your citations to appear before you start.
\subsubsection{Other modes of citation}
\label{othercite}

The method of citing a work by numeric reference is
	    common in the Natural Sciences but is not used in Law or
	    the Humanities. In these fields, citations are usually
	    done with short references (author/short-title/year) in a
	    numbered footnote. Sometimes they are actually called
	    `footnotes' to the exclusion of
	    ordinary footnotes, although they are really citations
	    which happen by convention to be
	    \emph{displayed} as footnotes: an important
	    distinction rarely appreciated by authors until they come
	    to need a normal footnote.

For these fields, the bibliography at the back of the
	    document is printed \emph{unnumbered} in
	    alphabetic order of author, or perhaps chronologically if
	    the time-frame is very large. This unnumbered format is
	    why it is conventionally called
	    `References' rather than
	    `Bibliography': a sufficient working
	    citation has already been provided in the footnote, and
	    the list at the back is for reference purposes only;
	    whereas in the Natural Sciences, the citation is just a
	    number, or possibly an author and year only, so the full
	    listing is called a Bibliography.

The \package{jurabib} package
	    (originally intended for German law articles but now
	    extended to other fields in the Humanities, and to other
	    languages) has extensive features for doing this style of
	    citation and is strongly recommended.
\section{Indexes and glossaries}
\label{indexes}
\index{indexes}\index{glossaries}
\LaTeX{} has a powerful, automated indexing facility which
        uses the standard \product{makeindex}
        program. To use indexing, use the package
        \package{makeidx} and include the
        \command{makeindex} command in your preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{makeidx}
\makeindex
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

When you want to index something, using the command
        \command{index} followed by the entry in curly
        braces, as you want it to appear in the index, using one of
        the following formats:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Plain entry]
Typing \verb+\index{beer}+ will create
              an entry for `beer' with the
              current page
              number.\index{beer}
\item[\sffamily Subindex entry]
For an entry with a subentry use an exclamation mark
              to separate them:
                \verb+\index{beer!lite}+.\index{beer!lite} Subsubentries like
              \verb+\index{beer!lite!American}+ work to
              another level deep.\index{beer!lite!American}
\item[\sffamily Cross-references]
`See' entries are done with
              the vertical bar (one of the rare times it does
              \emph{not} get interpreted as a math
              character):
              \verb+\index{Microbrew|see{beer}}+\index{Microbrew|see{beer}}
\item[\sffamily Font changes]\label{indextypo}
To change the style of an entry, use the @-sign
              followed by a font change command:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\index{beer!Rogue!Chocolate 
       Stout@\textit{Chocolate Stout}}
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\noindent This example\index{Chocolate Stout@\textit{Chocolate Stout}} indexes `\product{Chocolate
                  Stout}' and italicises it
              at the same time. Any of the standard
              \verb+\text...+ font-change commands work
              here: see the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{fontcmds} for details.

You can also change the font of the index number on
	      its own, as for first-usage references, by using the
	      vertical bar in a similar way to the
	      `see' entries above, but
	      substituting a font-change command name
	      (\emph{without} a backslash) such as
	      \verb+textbf+ for bold-face text (see the
	      index)\index{Chocolate Stout|textbf}:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\index{beer!Rogue!Chocolate Stout|textbf}
	    \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item[\sffamily Out of sequence]
The same method can be used as for font changes,
              but using the alternate index word instead of the font
              command name, so
              \verb+\index{Oregon Brewing Company@Rogue}+\index{Oregon Brewing                   Company@Rogue} will add an entry for
              `Rogue' in the
              `O' section of the index, as if
              it was spelled `Oregon Brewing
                Company'.
\end{description}

When the document has been processed through \LaTeX{} it
        will have created a \url+.idx+ file, which you
        run through the \product{makeindex} program
        by typing (for example):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
makeindex mythesis
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Some editors may have a button or menu entry for this. The
        program will look for the \url+.idx+ file and
        output a \url+.ind+ file. This gets used by the
        command \command{printindex} which you put at the end
        of your document, where you want the index printed. The
        default index format is two columns.

Glossaries are done in a similar manner using the command
        \command{makeglossary} in the preamble and the
        command \command{glossary} in the same way as
        \command{index}. There are some subtle differences in
        the way glossaries are handled: both the books by \citeauthoryear{latexbook} and by \citeauthoryear{companion} duck the issue, but
        there is some documentation on \url+glotex+ on
        CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}.
\section{Multiple columns}
\label{multicols}
\index{columns}
Use the \package{multicol} package: the
        environment is called \env{multicols} (note the
        plural form) and it takes the number of columns as a separate
        argument in curly braces:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{multicol}
...
\begin{multicols}{3}
...
\end{multicols}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{multicols}{3}
\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}\footnotesize\noindent 
\LaTeX{} has built-in support for two-column typesetting
          via the \verb+twocolumn+ option in the standard
          Document Class Declarations, but it is relatively inflexible
          in that you cannot change from full-width to double-column
          and back again on the same page, and the final page does not
          balance the column heights. However, it does feature special
          \env{figure*} and \env{table*}
          environments which typeset full-width figures and tables
          across a double-column setting.

The more extensive solution is the
	  \package{multicol} package, which will set up
	  to 10 columns, and allows the number of columns to be
	  changed or reset to one in mid-page, so that full-width
	  graphics can still be used. It also balances the height of
	  the final page so that all columns are the same
	  height\mdash{}if possible: it's not always
	  achievable\mdash{}and you can control the width of the gutter
	  by setting the \command{columnsep} length to a new
	  dimension.

Multi-column work needs some skill in typographic
	  layout, though: the narrowness of the columns makes
	  typesetting less likely to fit smoothly because it's hard to
	  hyphenate and justify well when there is little space to
	  man\oe uvre in.
\end{multicols}
\chapter{Fonts and layouts}
\label{typo}
\index{typographics}
This is the chapter that most users want first, because they
      come to structured documents from a wordprocessing environment
      where the \emph{only} way to convey different
      types of information is to fiddle with the font and size
      drop-down menus.

As I hope you have seen, this is normally completely
      unnecessary in \LaTeX{}, which does most of the hard work for you
      automatically. However, there are occasions when you need to
      make manual typographic changes, and this chapter is about how
      to do them.
\section{Changing layout}
\label{layouts}

The design of the page can be a very subjective matter,
        and also rather a subtle one. Many organisations large and
        small pay considerable sums to designers to come up with page
        layouts to suit their purposes. Styles in page layouts change
        with the years, as do fashions in everything else, so what may
        have looked attractive in 1991 may look rather dated in
        2011.

As with most aspects of typography, making the document
        readable involves making it consistent, so the reader is not
        interrupted or distracted too much by apparently random
        changes in margins, widths, or placement of objects. However,
        there are a number of different occasions where the layout
        usually \emph{does} change, related to the
        frequency with which the format appears.
\begin{itemize}
\item 
The title page, the half-title, copyright page,
            dedication, and other one-page preliminaries (if you use
            them) are usually designed individually, as the information
            on it only occurs once in that format anywhere in the
            document.

\item 
The table of contents and other related lists like
            figures and tables all need to share one
            design.

\item 
The prelims like Foreword, Introduction, and Preface
            should likewise follow the same format between
            them.

\item 
Chapter and Appendix start pages usually share a
            layout.

\item 
Other (normal) pages have a single layout, but it may
            specify individual variations to handle tables, lists,
            figures, sidebars, exercises, footnotes, etc.

\end{itemize}

If you are going to design a whole document, it's
        probably a good idea to read a couple of books on layout
        design first, to get a feel for the conventions which
        contribute to making the reader comfortable reading.

While unusual or radical layouts have an important role in
        attention-grabbing, or in making a socio-political statement
        (\titlecite{wired} magazine is an obvious
        recent example), they are usually out of place in business
        reports, white papers, books, theses, and journals. In
        ephemera, on the other hand, as in advertising, they are
        probably critical.
\subsection{Spacing}
\label{spacing}
\index{page size!margins}\index{margins}
We mentioned in \S\thinspace\ref{marginals} and
          elsewhere the existence of the
          \package{geometry} package which lets you
          change margins. It also lets you set the text-area height
          and width and a lot of other layout settings: read the
          documentation for details (see \S\thinspace\ref{packagedoc} for how to read package
          documentation).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage[left=2cm,top=1cm,bottom=2cm,right=3cm,
            nohead,nofoot]{geometry}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The spacing around the individual textual components
          (headings, paragraphs, lists, footnotes, etc.) can
          also be changed on a document-wide basis, as we saw with
          paragraph spacing and indentation in \S\thinspace\ref{paraspace}.

Changing the spacing of section headings for the whole
	  document can be done with the
	  \package{sectsty} package, designed to let
	  you adjust section-head spacing without having to know about
	  the internal \LaTeX{} coding, which is quite complex.

The spacing for lists can be adjusted with the
	  \package{mdwlist} package. In both cases the
	  user with highly specific requirements such as a
	  publisher's Compositor's Specification should read
	  the relevant sections in the \titlecite{companion} or ask for expert help, as
	  there are many internal settings which can also be changed
	  to fine-tune your design, but which need some knowledge of
          \LaTeX{}'s internals.

All the above are for automating changes so that they
          occur every time in a consistent manner. You can also make
          manual changes whenever you need:
\index{space|see{white-space}}\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Flexible vertical space]\index{white-space!vertical!flexible}
There are three commands
                \command{smallskip},
                \command{medskip}, and
                \command{bigskip}. These output flexible
                (dynamic, or `rubber') space,
                approximately 3pt, 6pt, and 12pt high respectively,
                and they will automatically compress or expand a
                little, depending on the demands of the rest of the
                page (for example to allow one extra line to fit, or a
                heading to be moved to the next page without anyone
                except a typographer noticing the change). These
                commands can only be used after a paragraph break (a
                blank line or the command
                \command{par}).
\item[\sffamily Fixed vertical space]\index{white-space!vertical!fixed}\index{white-space!vertical!disappearing}
For a fixed-height space which will
		\emph{not} stretch or shrink, use the
		command \command{vspace} followed by a length
		in curly braces, e.g. \verb+\vspace{18pt}+
		(again, this has to be after a paragraph break). Bear
		in mind that extra space which ends up at a page-break
		when the document is formatted \emph{will get
		  discarded entirely} to make the bottom and
		top lines fall in the correct places. To force a
		vertical space to remain and be taken into account
		even after a page break (very rare), use the starred
		variant \command{vspace*}, e.g.
		\verb+\vspace*{19pt}+.
\item[\sffamily Double spacing]\index{white-space!double-spacing}\index{double-spacing}
Double-spacing normal lines of text is usually a
		bad idea, as it looks very ugly.  It is still
		unfortunately a requirement in some universities for
		thesis submission, a historical relic from the days of
		typewriters. Nowadays, 1\Frac13 or 1½ line
		spacing is considered acceptable, according to your
		font size. If your institution still thinks they
		should have double line spacing, they are probably
		wrong, and just don't understand that the world has
		moved on since the typewriter. Show them this
		paragraph and explain that they need to enter the 21st
		century and adapt to the features of computer
		typesetting.  If they still insist, use the
		\package{setspace} package,which has
		commands for double line-spacing and one-and-a-half
		line spacing, but be prepared for some very ugly
		output (so warn your supervisor and extern).

The space between lines is defined by the value of
		the length variable \length{baselineskip} multiplied
		by the value of the \command{baselinestretch}
		command. In general, \emph{don't meddle with
		  \length{baselineskip} at
		  all}, and with
		\command{baselinestretch} only if you know
		what you are doing. (Both can, however, safely be used
		as reference values in commands like
		\verb+\vspace{\baselineskip}+ to leave a
		whole line space.)
\index{spacing|see{white-space}}
The value of \length{baselineskip} changes with
		the font size (see \S\thinspace\ref{fontsize}) but is conventionally set to
		1.2 times the current nominal font size. This is a
		value derived from long experience: only change it if
		you understand what it means and what effect it will
		have.

Quite separately, there are some perfectly genuine
		and normal reasons for wanting wide line spacing, 
		\index{spacing|see{double-spacing}} for example when typesetting a proof of a
		critical or variorum edition, where editors and
		contributors are going to want to add notes manually
		by writing between the lines, or where the text is
		going to be overprinted by something else like
		Braille, or in advertising or display text for special
		effects.
\item[\sffamily Horizontal space]\index{white-space!horizontal}
There is a horizontal equivalent to the
                \command{vspace} command:
                \command{hspace}, which works in the same
                way, so I can force a 1$''$ space like
                this\hspace*{1in}in
                mid-paragraph. There are also some predefined
                (shorter) spaces available:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
\command{thinspace} (\Frac1{12}em), 
                    which we saw between single and double quotes in
                  the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{thinspace}. It's also
                    sometimes used between the full point after
                    abbreviations and a following number, as in page
                    references like p.\thinspace{}199, where a word space
                    would look too big, and setting it solid would
                    look too tight.

\item 
\command{enspace} (½em).
                    There is no direct equivalent predefined in
                    \LaTeX{} for mid and thick spaces as used by metal
                    typesetters, although it would be possible to
                    define them. The en as a unit is often used as the
                    width of a single digit in some fonts, as a
                    convenience so that tables of figures are easy to
                    line up.

\item 
\command{quad} (1em).

\item 
\command{qquad} (2em).

\end{itemize}

Beyond this, all horizontal space within
		paragraphs is automatically flexible,
              \index{tracking|see{letterspacing}}\index{letterspacing} as this is what
                \LaTeX{} uses to achieve justification. Never be
		tempted to try and change the spacing between letters
		unless you have some professional training in
		typography. Some systems use letterspacing
		(incorrectly called `tracking') as an aid
		to justification and it is almost always wrong to do
		so (and looks it). While it \emph{is}
		possible to change letterspacing (with the
		\package{soul} package), it should only
		be done by a typographer, and then only very rarely,
		as the settings are very subtle and beyond the scope
		of this book.
\end{description}
\subsection{Headers and footers}
\label{runningheads}

\LaTeX{} has built-in settings to control the page style
	  of its default page layouts. These are implemented with the
	  \command{pagestyle} command, which can take one of
	  the following arguments.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \opt{plain}]
for a page number centered at the bottom;
\item[\sffamily \opt{empty}]
for nothing at all, not even a page number;
\item[\sffamily \opt{headings}]
for running heads based on the current chapter and
		section;
\item[\sffamily \opt{myheadings}]
which lets you use your own reprogrammed
		definitions of how \command{markright} and
		\command{markboth} commands, which control
		how chapter and section titles get into page
		headers.
\end{description}

The command \command{thispagestyle} (taking the
	  same arguments) can be used to force a specific style for
	  the current page only.

However, the easiest way is to use the
	  \package{fancyhdr} package, which lets you
	  redefine the left-hand, centre, and right-hand page headers
	  and footers for both odd and even pages (twelve objects in
	  all). These areas can contain a page number, fixed text,
	  variable text (like the current chapter or section title, or
	  the catch-words of a dictionary), or even a small image.
	  They can also be used to do page backgrounds and frames, by
	  making one of them the top corner of an invisible box which
	  `hangs' text or images down over the whole
	  page.

The settings for the downloadable version of this
	  document can be used as an example: for the whole story you
	  have to read the documentation.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\pagestyle{fancy}\fancyhead{}
\renewcommand\headrulewidth{.1pt}
\fancyhead[LO,RE]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\leftmark}
\fancyhead[LE,RO]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\itshape
                  \rightmark}
\fancyfoot[C]{}
\fancyfoot[LE,RO]{\setlength{\fboxsep}{2pt}\ovalbox%
                  {\footnotesize\sffamily\thepage}}
\fancyfoot[LO,RE]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\@title}
\fancypagestyle{plain}{\fancyhf{}
    \fancyfoot[R]{\setlength{\fboxsep}{2pt}\ovalbox{%
                  \footnotesize\sffamily\thepage}}
    \fancyfoot[L]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\@title}
    \renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt}}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This is probably more complex than most documents, but
	  it illustrates some common requirements:
\begin{enumerate}\item 
Settings are prefixed by making the
	      \command{pagestyle} `fancy'
	      and setting the \command{fancyhead} to
	      null to zap any predefined values.

\item 
The thickness of the rule at the top of the page can
	      be changed (or set to 0pt to make it disappear).

\item 
The header and footer settings are specified with L,
	      C, and R for left, centre, and right; and with O and E
	      for Odd and Even numbered pages. In each setting, the
	      typeface style, size, and font can be specified along
	      with macros which implement various dynamic texts (here,
	      the current chapter and section titles, which \LaTeX{}
	      stores in \command{rightmark} and
	      \command{leftmark}).

\item 
The `plain' variant is used for chapter
	      starts, and resets some of the parameters
	      accordingly.

\end{enumerate}
\section{Using fonts}
\label{fontuse}
\index{fonts!in general}
The default typeface in \LaTeX{} is Computer Modern (CM)\index{CM@CM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CM@CM|textbf}. This typeface was
	designed by Knuth for use with \TeX{} because it is a book
	face, and he designed \TeX{} originally for typesetting books.
	Because it is one of the very few book typefaces with a
	comprehensive set of fonts, including a full suite of
	mathematics, it has remained the default, rather than the
	Times you find in wordprocessors, because until recently the
	mathematical symbols for Times were a commercial product often
	unavailable to users of free software.

\index{fonts!\mf{}}\index{fonts!Computer Modern}{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{12pt}{12pt}\selectfont{}Computer Modern is based on
	  a 19th-century book typeface from Monotype, which is why it
	  looks a little like an old-fashioned school book. This
	  paragraph is set in Computer Modern so you can see what it
	  looks like. The typeface was designed using \mf{}, the
	  font-drawing program made by Knuth to accompany \TeX{}
	  systems, but it is now also available in Type 1 and
	  TrueType formats.}
\begin{warning}

If you are reading this in a web browser, the above
	  paragraph is only a low-resolution copy because browsers
	  don't usually have the Computer Modern font available.
	  All the rest of this document is set in \rmfontfamilyname{}, with
	  \sffontfamilyname{} for some of the headings and \ttfontfamilyname{} for the
	  fixed-width type.
\end{warning}

In addition to CM\index{CM@CM}, there are
	many other \mf{} fonts which can be downloaded from
	CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}, including a large collection
	of historical, symbol, initial, and non-Latin fonts. \LaTeX{}
	also comes with the `Adobe 35'
	typefaces which are built into laser printers and other
	DTP\index{DTP@DTP} systems, and some more fonts
	donated by the X Consortium. Plus, of course, standard
	\LaTeX{} can use any of the thousands of
	Type 1 fonts available, and
	\product{pdf\LaTeX{}} can use any of the
	thousands of TrueType fonts as well.

In the following lists, if there is a package available,
	its name is given in parentheses after the name of the
	typeface. The font-family name is shown on the right-hand
	side. If a non-standard font-encoding is needed, its name is
	shown before the font-family name.
\index{fonts!TrueType}\index{fonts!metafont@\mf{}}\index{fonts!PostScript}\index{fonts!Type 1}\begingroup\small \subsubsection*{Latin-alphabet typefaces (\mf{})}\label{fontable-mf}\addcontentsline{lot}{subsubsection}{Latin-alphabet typefaces (\mf{})}\par\smallskip\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Computer Modern Roman\hfill\texttt{cmr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Computer Modern Sans\hfill\texttt{cmss}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmss}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Computer Modern Typewriter\hfill\texttt{cmtt}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmtt}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Pandora\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{pandora})}\hfill\texttt{panr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{panr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Pandora Sans\hfill\texttt{pss}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pss}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Pandora Typewriter\hfill\texttt{pntt}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pntt}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Universal\hfill\texttt{uni}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{uni}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Concrete\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{ccr})}\hfill\texttt{ccr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ccr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut É{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i}reannach\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{eiad})}\hfill\texttt{eiad}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{eiad}\selectfont
N{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\'\i}l aon tinteán mar do thinteán f\'ein}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Rustic\hfill\texttt{rust}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{rust}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Uncial\hfill\texttt{uncl}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{uncl}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Dürer\hfill\texttt{zdu}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{zdu}\selectfont
THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Fraktur\hfill\texttt{U\enspace yfrak}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{yfrak}\selectfont
Fuch\char'215 , Du hast die Gan\char'215  gestohlen, gib sie wieder her!}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Gothic\hfill\texttt{U\enspace ygoth}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{ygoth}\selectfont
Fuch\char'215 , Du hast die Gan\char'215  gestohlen, gib sie wieder her!}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Schwäbische\hfill\texttt{U\enspace yswab}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{yswab}\selectfont
Fuch\char'215 , Du hast die Gan\char'215  gestohlen, gib sie wieder her!}\strut
\hrule height.2pt \endgroup\begingroup\small \subsubsection*{Latin-alphabet typefaces (PostScript Type 1) from
	  Adobe}\label{fontable-adobe}\addcontentsline{lot}{subsubsection}{Latin-alphabet typefaces (PostScript Type 1) from
	  Adobe}\par\smallskip\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Avant Garde\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{avant})}\hfill\texttt{pag}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pag}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Bookman\footnote{Uses Avant Garde as the sans-serif and Courier for
	    monospace.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{bookman})}\hfill\texttt{pbk}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pbk}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Courier\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{courier})}\hfill\texttt{pcr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pcr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Helvetica\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{helvet})}\hfill\texttt{phv}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut New Century Schoolbook\footnote{Uses Helvetica as the sans-serif font and Courier
	    for monospace.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{newcent})}\hfill\texttt{pnc}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pnc}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Palatino\footnote{Uses Avant Garde as the sans-serif and Courier for
	    monospace.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{palatino})}\hfill\texttt{ppl}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ppl}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Symbol\hfill\texttt{U\enspace psy}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{psy}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Times New Roman\footnote{Uses Helvetica as the sans-serif font and Courier
	    for monospace. Mathematical symbols for Times are
	    available both free and commercially.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{times})}\hfill\texttt{ptm}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ptm}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Zapf Chancery\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{zapfchan})}\hfill\texttt{pzc}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pzc}\selectfont\itshape
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Zapf Dingbats\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{pifont})}\hfill\texttt{U\enspace pzd}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{pzd}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt \endgroup\par\medskip 
As mentioned in \S\thinspace\ref{print}, the 
	`Adobe 35' fonts can be used with any
	printer, not just a laser printer or typesetter. The
	\product{Ghostscript} interpreter and the
	\product{GSview} viewer come with a large set
	of printer drivers, so you just create PostScript output and
	print from \product{GSview}.

Incidentally, the 35 refers to the total number of fonts
	for the 10 typefaces, including their bold, italic, and
	bold-italic variants.

Postscript Type 1 fonts have been the mainstay of the
	graphic arts industries for many years, as they allow much
	better definition of variance
	(`hinting') than most other formats.
	However, the font format remains proprietary to Adobe, even
	though they have released it for public use, which means they
	could change it without warning.  A new format called
	`OpenType' is designed to overcome
	this, and some versions of \TeX{} are
	already able to use OpenType fonts.
\begingroup\small \subsubsection*{Latin-alphabet fonts (PostScript Type 1) from the X
	    Consortium}\label{fontable-x}\addcontentsline{lot}{subsubsection}{Latin-alphabet fonts (PostScript Type 1) from the X
	    Consortium}\par\smallskip\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Charter\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{charter})}\hfill\texttt{bch}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{bch}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Nimbus Roman\hfill\texttt{unm}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{unm}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Nimbus Sans\hfill\texttt{unms}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{unms}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut URW Antiqua\hfill\texttt{uaq}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{uaq}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut URW Grotesk\hfill\texttt{ugq}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ugq}\selectfont\bfseries
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Utopia\footnote{Removed from recent distributions as it is not
	    free.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{utopia})}\hfill\texttt{put}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{put}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt \endgroup\par\medskip \begingroup\small \subsubsection*{Non-Latin-alphabet typefaces (\mf{})}\label{fontable-nonlat}\addcontentsline{lot}{subsubsection}{Non-Latin-alphabet typefaces (\mf{})}\par\smallskip\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut BB Dingbats\hfill\texttt{U\enspace ding}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{ding}\selectfont
\fontsize{9}{0}\selectfont The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Cypriot\hfill\texttt{cypr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cypr}\selectfont
\fontsize{8}{0}\selectfont The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Etruscan\hfill\texttt{etr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{etr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Linear `B'\hfill\texttt{linb}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{linb}\selectfont
\fontsize{9}{0}\selectfont The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Phoenician\hfill\texttt{phnc}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{phnc}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Runic\hfill\texttt{fut}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{fut}\selectfont
THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Bard\hfill\texttt{U\enspace zba}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{zba}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt \endgroup\begin{warning}

Just to make it clear: standard \LaTeX{} uses only
	  \mf{} and PostScript\index{PostScript} Type 1
	  fonts. \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} can use TrueType
	  fonts as well.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Changing the default font family}
\index{fonts!changing the default}
\LaTeX{} expects to work with three font families as
	  defaults:
\index{fonts!families}\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l>{\ttfamily}l}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Font family}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Code}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Roman (serif, with tails on the uprights), the
		  default&rm\\
\sffamily{}Sans-serif, with no tails on
		  the uprights&sf\\
\ttfamily{}Monospace (fixed-width or
		  typewriter)&tt\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
The start-up default for \LaTeX{} equates the
	  \verb+rm+ default with the
	  {\slshape\verb`cmr`} font-family (Computer Modern Roman),
	  \verb+sf+ with {\slshape\verb`cmss`}, and
	  \verb+tt+ with {\slshape\verb`cmtt`}. If you
	  use one of the packages listed in the tables on pp.\thinspace\pageref{fontable-mf}--\pageref{fontable-nonlat}, it will
	  replace the defaults of the same type: for example,
	  \verb+\usepackage{bookman}+ makes the default
	  \verb+rm+ font-family Bookman
	  ({\slshape\verb`pbk`}), but leaves the sans-serif
	  (\verb+sf+) and monospace
	  (\verb+tt+) families untouched. Equally,
	  \verb+\usepackage{helvet}+ changes the default
	  sans-serif family to Helvetica but leaves the serif (Roman)
	  and monospace families untouched. Using both commands will
	  change both defaults because they operate
	  independently.

\emph{However}\dots as it is common to
	  want to change all three defaults at the same time, some of
	  the most common `suites' of typefaces
	  are provided as packages:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \package{times}]
changes to Times/Helvetica/Courier.
\item[\sffamily \package{pslatex}]
same as \package{times} but uses a
		specially narrowed Courier to save space (normal
		Courier is rather inelegantly wide). This is the
		preferred setting if you want Times.\footnote{The \package{pslatex} package
		    is also said to be outdated by some experts
		    because it implements rather long-windedly what
		    can now be done in three commands. However, until
		    these replace the current version, I recommend
		    continuing to use \package{pslatex}
		    when you want Times with Helvetica and narrow
		    Courier.}
\item[\sffamily \package{newcent}]
changes to New Century
		Schoolbook/Helvetica/Courier.
\item[\sffamily \package{palatino}]
changes to Palatino/Avant Garde/Courier.
\item[\sffamily \package{palatcm}]
changes the roman to Palatino only, but with
		CM\index{CM@CM} mathematics
\end{description}

Where no package name is given in the tables on pp.\thinspace\pageref{fontable-mf}--\pageref{fontable-nonlat}, it means the
	  font is rarely used as a default by itself except in special
	  cases like users' own homebrew packages. To use such a
	  font you have to specify it manually, or make a little macro
	  for yourself if you use it more than once.
\subsection{Changing the font-family temporarily}
\label{fontfam}
\index{fonts!changing temporarily}
To shift to another font family on a temporary basis,
	  use the commands \command{fontencoding} (if
	  needed), \command{fontfamily}, and
	  \command{selectfont}, and \emph{enclose the
	    commands \textbf{and} the text in curly
	    braces}. Note that this is a
	  \emph{different} way of using curly braces to
	  how we have used them before: it limits the effect of a
	  change to the material inside the braces.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
{\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont 
Helvetica looks like this}: 
{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{bch}\selectfont
Charter looks like this}.
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

{\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont{}Helvetica
	      looks like this}: {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{bch}\selectfont{}Charter looks like
	      this}.
\end{quote}\end{example}

In this example, the \command{fontencoding}
	  command has been used to ensure that the typeface will work
	  even if the sentence is used in the middle of something
	  typeset in a different encoding (like this
	  document).\footnote{Test for the observant reader: in what typeface will
	  the colon (:) in the example be set?}
\begin{sidebar}\label{grouping}
\subsection*{Grouping}\index{grouping}
Note carefully this use of curly braces to restrict
	    the scope of a change rather than delimit the argument to
	    a command. This is called
	    `grouping' and it makes the effect
	    any changes made \emph{inside} the braces
	    local, so that they do not interfere with the text
	    following. Any changes to fonts or other values made
	    within the curly braces cease when the closing curly brace
	    is processed.
\end{sidebar}
In a normal document, of course, random typeface changes
	  like this are rather rare. You select your typeface[s] once
	  at the start of the document, and stick with them.

Most cases where people want to do unusual typeface
	  changes involve things like special symbols on a repetitive
	  basis, and \LaTeX{} provides much easier programmable ways
	  to make these changes into shorthand commands (called
	  macros: see \chaptername~\ref{macros}). You could, for
	  example, make a macro called \command{product}
	  which would let you typeset product names in a distinct
	  typeface:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Andlinger, Inc., has replaced \product{Splosh} with 
\product{SuperSplosh}.
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This is one of \LaTeX{}'s most powerful features.
	  It means that if you needed to change your
	  \command{product} command at some later stage to
	  use a different font, you only have to change three
	  characters in the macro (the font-family name), and
	  you don't need to edit your document text at all!
	  What's more, a macro could do other things at the same time,
	  like add an entry to an index of products.

However, vastly more common are changes to type
	  \emph{style}, while staying with the same
	  font-family.
\subsection{Changing font style}
\index{fonts!styles}
Within each typeface or font family there are usually
	  several different `looks' to the type
	  design. \LaTeX{} distinguishes between font \textbf{\textit{family}}\label{family}\index{family@\textbf{\textit{family}}}, font \textbf{\textit{shape}}\label{shape}\index{shape@\textbf{\textit{shape}}}, and font \textbf{\textit{series}}\label{series}\index{series@\textbf{\textit{series}}}:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\ttfamily}ll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Type style}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Command}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Example (using Computer Modern)}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Upright&\command{upshape}*&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps over the
		    lazy d}\\
Italic&\command{itshape}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}\font\foo=cmti10
		      \foo The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy
		      dog}\\
Slanted&\command{slshape}*&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{sl}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
		    jumps over the lazy d}\\
Small Capitals&\command{scshape}*&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{sc}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
		    jumps over the}\\
Bold&\command{bfseries}*&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
		    jumps over the lazy d}\\
Bold Extended&\command{bfseries}\dag &{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontseries{bx}\selectfont{}\font\foo=cmbx10
		      \foo The quick brown fox jumps over the
		      lazy}\\
Sans-serif&\command{sffamily}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmss}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps over the
		    lazy dog}\\
Monospace&\command{ttfamily}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmtt}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps over the
		    laz}\\
\end{tabular}
\par\smallskip\footnotesize
\begin{itemize*}
\item [\sffamily *] Not all typefaces have all
		variants! Some only have bold and italics.
\item [\sffamily \dag ] Some typefaces do not have
		both bold and bold extended: by default \LaTeX{} uses
		\command{bfseries} for bold
		extended.
\end{itemize*}
\end{center}
\endgroup
These `shape',
	  `series', and
	  `family' commands are \textbf{\textit{commutative}}\label{commutative}\index{commutative@\textbf{\textit{commutative}}}, so you can
	  combine a shape with a series and/or a family, without the
	  need to use \command{selectfont}:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
This gives you {\bfseries\itshape\sffamily bold 
italic sans-serif type}, but beware
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This gives you {\sffamily{}\fontseries{b}\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}bold italic sans-serif type}, but
	  beware of pushing your fonts beyond their limits unless you
	  are a typographer. It is not normally meaningful to combine
	  one shape or series class with another of the same class,
	  such as trying to get slanted-italics. It's an
	  impossibility to combine one family with another (such as a
	  seriffed sans-serif typeface!). Slanted plus italics, for
	  example, doesn't make sense, as italics are already
	  slanted (although it is technically possible); and while
	  some typefaces may well possess italic small caps, they are
	  not in common use. Sans-serif and monospace (typewriter) are
	  different fonts, and often different typeface families
	  entirely.\footnote{Although if you're a typographer wanting to
	      experiment with typewriter typefaces with and without
	      serifs, you can use \mf{} to do exactly this kind
	      of thing. But that's way outside the scope of this
	      document.}

There is an alternative syntax for the most common type
	  shape and series commands which uses curly braces in the
	  normal `argument' manner:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\label{fontcmds}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\ttfamily}ll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Type style}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Command}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Example}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Italic&\verb+\textit{text}+&puts {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}text}
		  into italics\\
Slanted&\verb+\textsl{text}+&puts {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{sl}\selectfont{}text} into
		  slanted type*\\
Small Capitals&\verb+\textsc{text}+&puts {\fontshape{sc}\selectfont{}text} into
		  small caps\\
Bold&\verb+\textbf{text}+&puts {\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}text} into
		  bold type\\
Sans-serif&\verb+\textsf{text}+&puts {\sffamily{}\selectfont{}text}
		  into sans-serif type\\
Monospace&\verb+\texttt{text}+&puts {\ttfamily{}\selectfont{}text} into
		  typewriter type\\
\end{tabular}
\par\smallskip\footnotesize
\begin{itemize*}
\item [\sffamily *] If slanted is available separately
		from italics.
\end{itemize*}
\end{center}
\endgroup
You can nest these inside one another too:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
...\textbf{\itshape\textsf{bold italic 
sans-serif type}}...
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\label{uline}%
Underlining isn't a font, and it is extremely
	  rare in typography except for special purposes. If you think
	  you need it, use the \package{ulem} package
	  with the \verb+normalem+ option, and the
	  \command{uline} command.
\subsection{Font sizes}
\label{fontsize}
\index{fonts!sizes}
\LaTeX{} has built into its defaults a set of predefined
	  font size steps corresponding more or less to the
	  traditional sizes available to metal typesetters. This is
	  deliberate, as these sizes have grown up over 500 years of
	  printing as those which go best together for book-work,
	  which is where \TeX{} originated.

These sizes are also reflected in the size steps at
	  which Computer Modern was designed. It often comes as a
	  surprise to new users that many typefaces are not designed
	  as a single font and just scaled up or down, but specially
	  drawn at different sizes to make them more legible.

As an example, {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{12}{12}\selectfont{}here's 12pt Computer
	    Modern}, and {\font\cmbig=cmr5
	    at12pt\cmbig here's 5pt Computer Modern scaled up to
	    12pt}, and
	  {\font\cmsmall=cmr17 at12pt\cmsmall
	    here's 17pt Computer Modern scaled down to
	    12pt} so you can see there really is a
	  significant difference. In general, you probably don't
	  want to go scaling fonts too much beyond their design size
	  because they will start to look very odd.

The default sizes (and the commands that operate them)
	  are based on the use of a 10pt font, which is the normal
	  size for most texts. Using the larger defaults (11pt and
	  12pt) for the body font will scale these sizes up
	  approximately in proportion. The exact sizes used are listed
	  in the macros in the Class Option files
	  \url+size10.clo+,
	  \url+size11.clo+ and
	  \url+size12.clo+. \TeX{}'s default fonts
	  above 10pt are in fact scaled by a factor of 1.2, as shown
	  in the fourth column of the table below.
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}llrr@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Command}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Example}&\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\raggedleft}}b{.6in}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Nominal point
		  size}&\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\raggedleft}}b{.5in}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Exact point
		  size}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\command{tiny}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{5}{5}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
		    jumps over the lazy dog}&5&5\\
\command{scriptsize}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{7}{7}\selectfont{}The quick brown
		    fox jumps over the laz}&7&7\\
\command{footnotesize}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{8}{8}\selectfont{}The quick
		    brown fox jumps over the l}&8&8\\
\command{small}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{9}{9}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
		    jumps over th}&9&9\\
\command{normalsize}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{10}{10}\selectfont{}The quick
		    brown fox jumps over}&10&10\\
\command{large}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{12}{12}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
		    jumps}&12&12\\
\command{Large}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{14}{14}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
		    ju}&14&14.40\\
\command{LARGE}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{18}{18}\selectfont{}The quick brown
                fo}&18&17.28\\
\command{huge}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{20}{20}\selectfont{}The quick
                brown}&20&20.74\\
\command{Huge}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{24}{24}\selectfont{}The quick
                bro}&24&24.88\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
While these `shorthand' commands
	  relieve the beginner of having to worry about the
	  `right' size for a given task, when
	  you need a specific size there is the
	  \command{fontsize} command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\fontsize{22}{28}\selectfont This is 22pt 
type 6pt leaded
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

`Leading' comes from the old metal-type
        practice of adding a lead strip between lines to increase the
        spacing.

The \command{fontsize} command takes two
	  arguments: the point size and the baseline distance. The
	  above example gives you 22pt type on a 28pt baseline
	  (i.e. with 6pt extra space or
	  `leading' between the lines).
\begin{warning}

Computer Modern fonts (the default) come fixed at the
	    named size steps shown in the table, and if you try to use
	    an odd size in between, \LaTeX{} will pick the closest
	    step instead. If you really need to use CM\index{CM@CM} at arbitrary sizes there is a
	    package \package{type1cm} which lets you
	    override the default steps. If you use
	    PostScript\index{PostScript} (Type 1) fonts, the
	    step sizes do not apply and the font scaling is infinitely
	    variable.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Logical markup}

All this playing around with fonts is very pretty but
	  you normally only do it for a reason, even if that reason is
	  just to be decorative. Italics, for example, are used for
	  many things:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l>{\itshape}l}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Cause}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Effect}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Foreign words&ex officio\\
Scientific names&Ranunculus ficaria\\
Emphasis&must not\\
Titles of documents&The \LaTeX{} Companion\\
Product names&{\upshape
		    Corel's} WordPerfect\\
Variables in maths&\(E=mc^{2}\)\\
Subtitles or headings&How to get started\\
Decoration&FREE UPGRADE!!!\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
Humans usually have no problem telling the difference
	  between these reasons, because they can read and understand
	  the meaning and context. Computers cannot (yet), so it has
	  become conventional to use descriptive names which make the
	  distinction explicit, even though the appearance may be the
	  same.

\LaTeX{} has some of these built in, like
	  \command{emph}, which provides
	  \emph{emphasis}. This has a special feature
	  because {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}when the surrounding text is
	    already italic, \emph{emphasis}
	    automatically reverts to \emph{upright
	      type}}, which is the normal practice
	  for typesetting.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
This has a special feature because {\itshape when the 
surrounding text is already italic, \emph{emphasis} 
automatically reverts to upright type, which is the
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\label{emph}%
This sensitivity to logic is programmed into
	  the definition of \command{emph} and it's not
	  hard to make up other commands of your own which could do
	  the same, such as \command{foreign} or
	  \command{product}.

But why would you bother? In a short document it's
	  probably not important, but if you're writing a long
	  report, or a formal document like an article, a book, or a
	  thesis, it makes writing and editing hugely easier if you
	  can control whole groups of special effects with a single
	  command, such as italicising, indexing, or cross-referencing
	  to a glossary. If a format needs changing, you only have to
	  change the definition, and every occurrence automatically
	  follows suit.
\begin{warning}

Beware of this `vaine conceipt of simple men,
	      which judge things by ther effects, and not by ther
	      causes'. (Edmund Spenser, 1633)  It's hugely
	    more efficient to have control of the cause than the
	    effect.
\end{warning}

It also makes it possible to find and act on groups of
	  meanings\mdash{}such as making an index of scientific names
	  or product names (as in this document)\mdash{}if they are
	  identified with a special command. Otherwise you'd
	  spend weeks hunting manually through every
	  \command{textit} command to find the ones you
	  wanted. This is the importance of automation: it can save
	  you time and money.

In \chaptername~\ref{macros} we will see how to make your
	  own simple commands like this.
\subsection{Colour}
\index{colour}\index{fonts!colour}
You can typeset anything in \LaTeX{} in any colour you
	  want using the \package{color} package.
	  First, you need to add the command
	  \verb+\usepackage{color}+ to your preamble (note
	  the US spelling of color!). This makes available a default
	  palette of primary colours: {\color{red}red}, {\color{green}green}, and {\color{blue}blue} for the RGB\index{RGB@RGB} colour model used for emitted light
	  (television screens), and {\color{cyan}cyan}, {\color{magenta}magenta}, {\color{yellow}yellow}, and black for the
	  CMYK\index{CMYK@CMYK} colour model used for
	  reflected light (printing).

For the occasional word or phrase in colour, use the
	  command \command{textcolor} with two arguments, the
	  colour name and the text: \verb+\textcolor{red}{like this}+. There is a \command{color}
	  command as well, for use within groups:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
...{\color{blue}some text in blue}...
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you have the PostScript\index{PostScript}
	  printer driver \product{dvips} installed,
	  you also get a separate 64-colour palette of predefined
	  \textbf{\textit{color names}}\label{colornames}\index{color names@\textbf{\textit{color names}}}. These
	  represent approximately the colours in the big box of
	  \product{Crayola} colouring pencils much
	  favoured by artists and designers. This adds a new colour
	  model called `\verb+named+', so if
	  you want the \product{Crayola} colour
	  {\color[named]{FF00DD}RubineRed}, you can use the
	  \command{color} or \command{textcolor}
	  commands with a preceding optional argument
	  `\opt{named}':
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\color[named]{RubineRed}
\textcolor[named]{RubineRed}{some red text}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

As some of the `\verb+named+'
	  colour names are quite long, you can create a short name of
	  your own for colours you use frequently, using the
	  \command{definecolor} command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\definecolor{mb}{named}{MidnightBlue} 
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The \command{definecolor} command needs three
        arguments: your shorthand name, the name of the colour model,
	  and the colour specification. In the case of the
	  `\verb+named+' model, the last
        argument is one of the 64 colour names. To
	  use these names with \product{pdf\LaTeX{}},
	  you need to use the \opt{pdftex} option to the
	  \package{color} package.

Using the \command{definecolor} command, you
	  can define any colour you want by giving it a name,
	  specifying which colour model, and providing the Red-Green-Blue (RGB)\index{RGB@RGB|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!RGB@RGB|textbf} or Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Black (CMYK)\index{CMYK@CMYK|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CMYK@CMYK|textbf} colour
	  values expressed as decimals, separated by commas. For
	  example, an RGB\index{RGB@RGB} shade given as
	  (37,125,224) in decimal (\#250FE0 in hexadecimal as used
	  on the Web) can be given as\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\definecolor{midblue}{rgb}{0.145,0.490,0.882} 
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
 (divide each value by 255, the maximum for
	  each of the hues in the Red-Green-Blue colour model). You
	  can then use \command{textcolor} with your new
	  colour name: {\color{midblue}the midblue looks like
	    this if you're reading in colour.}

The \package{color} package also provides
	  a colour version of \command{fbox} (see \S\thinspace\ref{fbox}) called
	  \command{colorbox}:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\colorbox{midblue}{\color{magenta}Magenta on midblue}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\colorbox{midblue}{\color{magenta}Magenta
	    on midblue}: you can
	    see how careful you need to be with colours!
\section{Installing new fonts}
\label{instfonts}
\index{fonts!installing}
Different fonts come in a variety of packagings: the three
        most common used with \TeX{} systems are
        PostScript\index{PostScript} fonts, TrueType fonts, and
        \mf{} fonts. How you install them and where they go
        depends on how you installed \LaTeX{}: all I can deal with here
        are the standard locations within the TDS\index{TDS@TDS}.

Typefaces come supplied as one or more font
	`outline' files and a number of
	ancillary files:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \mf{} typefaces]
have a number of \url+.mf+ source
	      (outline) files, possibly also some
	      \url+.fd+ (font definition) files and a
	      \url+.sty+ (style) file. The
	      \url+.tfm+ (\TeX{} font metric) files are
	      not needed, as they can be generated from the
	      outlines.
\item[\sffamily PostScript typefaces]
come as a pair of files: a \url+.pfb+
	      (PostScript font binary) or \url+.pfa+
	      (PostScript font ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII})
	      outline, and an \url+.afm+ (Adobe font
	      metric) file. There may also be
	      \url+.inf+ and other files but these are
	      not needed for use with \TeX{} systems.
\item[\sffamily TrueType typefaces]
are a single \url+.ttf+ file, which
	      combines outline and metrics in one.
\end{description}

The instructions here assume the use of the New Font Selection Scheme (NFSS)\index{NFSS@NFSS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!NFSS@NFSS|textbf} used in
        \LaTeXe{}. If you are running the obsolete \LaTeX{} 2.09,
        upgrade it now.
\subsection{Installing \mf{} fonts}
\label{mffonts}

This is the simplest installation. When you download
	  \mf{} fonts from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN},
	  you'll usually find a large number of Outline files
	  (\url+.mf+ files) and maybe some other types
	  as well (see below).
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Creating a new subdirectory for a font}
\label{mkfontdir}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{public}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \label{newsub}%
Create a new subdirectory named after the typeface
	      you're installing in
	      \url+texmf-local/fonts/source/public/+:
\item 
Copy all the \url+.mf+ (outline)
	      files to this directory.
\item 
Copy the \url+.fd+ (Font Definition)
	      file[s] and the \url+.sty+ (style) file
	      to your \url+texmf/tex/latex/mfnfss+
	      directory.
\item 
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}).
\end{enumerate}

That's it. Unlike PostScript\index{PostScript}
	  fonts, \mf{} fonts can be used to generate the font
	  metric file (\url+.tfm+ files) automatically
	  on-the-fly the first time the typeface is used, so there
	  should be nothing else to install.

Now you can put a \command{usepackage} command
	  in your preamble with whatever name the
	  \verb+.sty+ file was called, and read the
	  documentation to see what commands it gives to use the font
	  (refer to the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{packinst} and step~\ref{dtxdoc} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{dtxdoc}).

If the font came \emph{without}\url+.fd+ or \url+.sty+ files,
	  you'll need to find someone who can make them for you
	  (or follow the outline in \S\thinspace\ref{psfonts}, step~\ref{fdfiles} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{fdfiles}).
\subsubsection{Pre-generated metrics (optional)}

Some \mf{} fonts come with pre-generated
	    \url+.tfm+ files which you can install if
	    your system is slow at generating them itself:
\begin{enumerate}
\addtocounter{enumi}{\thehold}\item 
Create a new subdirectory within
		\url+texmf-local/fonts/tfm/public/+
		named the same as the one you created for the
		\url+.mf+ files above.
\item 
Copy all the \url+.tfm+ files into
		this subdirectory.
\item 
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}).
\end{enumerate}
\setcounter{hold}{\theenumi}\subsubsection{Pre-generated bitmaps (optional)}

In some rare cases, pre-generated packed bitmap fonts
	    (\url+.pk+ files) are also available from
	    CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} (normally your previewer
	    and print driver creates these automatically, but you can
	    use the pre-generated ones if you have a very slow
	    system). If you really want to install these, it's a
	    similar procedure to the \url+.tfm+
	    files:
\begin{enumerate}
\addtocounter{enumi}{\thehold}\item 
Create a new subdirectory within
		\url+texmf-local/fonts/pk/modeless/+
		named the same as the one you created for the
		\url+.mf+ and \url+.tfm+
		files above.
\item 
Copy all the \url+.nnnpk+ files
		into this subdirectory (\(nnn\) is
		a number reflecting the dot-density of the bitmap). On
		Microsoft systems the files may just end in
		\url+.pk+ and be kept in subdirectories
		named after the dot-density, e.g.
		\url+dpi360+.
\item 
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}).
\end{enumerate}
\setcounter{hold}{\theenumi}\subsection{Installing PostScript fonts}
\label{psfonts}
\index{fonts!PostScript}
Lots of people will tell you that
          PostScript\index{PostScript} fonts and PostScript
          output are dead and that TrueType or OpenType fonts and PDF
          output are the way to go. While this is true for many cases,
          standard \LaTeX{} does not work with TrueType fonts and does
          not produce PDF\index{PDF@PDF} directly. Only
          \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} does that, and there are
          still many printers whose typesetters and platemakers use
          PostScript\index{PostScript} rather than PDF\index{PDF@PDF}. In addition, operating system
          support for scalable fonts is still very poor on Unix
          systems (including Linux), despite the advances in recent
          years, so in many cases it still makes sense to use
          \TeX{}'s built-in support for PostScript.

Two files are needed for each font: the
	  \url+.afm+Adobe Font
	    Metric (AFM)\index{AFM@AFM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!AFM@AFM|textbf} and the \url+.pfb+PostScript Font Binary (PFB)\index{PFB@PFB|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PFB@PFB|textbf} files.
	  \emph{You must have both for each font before you
	    start.} If you only have the near-obsolete
	  \url+.pfa+PostScript Font
	    ASCII (PFA)\index{PFA@PFA|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PFA@PFA|textbf} files, it may be possible to generate the
	  \url+.pfb+ files using the
	  \product{t1binary} program from the
	  \product{t1utils} suite (see \url+http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.net/packages/t1utils.htm+) 
	  or the excellent \product{PFAedit} font
	  editor (from \url+http://pfaedit.sourceforge.net+). There are
	  unfortunately still some companies distributing Type 1
	  fonts in \url+.pfa+ format (Mathematica is
	  one reported recently).
\begin{warning}

The installation method I described in earlier
            editions has worked perfectly for me for years, but I have
            updated it here to use the facilities of the
            \product{updmap} program (which comes
            with your \TeX{} installation). This removes the need for
            one of the steps I gave before, which required editing the
            \url+psfonts.map+ file, as this is now
            recreated by \product{updmap}. The
            procedure below is \emph{not} the official
            way (that's \product{fontinst}), but
            it is the basis for a script I am working on called
            \product{Gutta-Percha}\footnote{Yes, as in rubber.}, which automates the whole process.
\end{warning}

I'll repeat this: before you start, make sure you
          have all the \url+.afm+ and
          \url+.pfb+ files for the typeface you want.
          In the example below, I'm going to use a single font
          from an imaginary typeface called Foo, so I have
          \verb+foo.afm+ and
          \verb+foo.pfb+ files.
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Put the files in your temporary directory}\\
This is \url+/tmp+ on Linux, and
              should be \url+C:\tmp+ or
              \url+C:\temp+ or even
              \url+C:\Windows\temp+ on Microsoft
              Windows.
\item \textbf{Decide on the short font name to use
              inside \LaTeX{}.}\\
This is \emph{not} the full
	      descriptive name (e.g. Baskerville Italic Bold
	      Extended) but an encoded font name in the format
	      \verb+fnnsseec+, devised by \person{Karl Berry}, which stores the same information in no
	      more than eight characters for compatibility with
	      systems which cannot handle long filenames. The letters
	      in the format above have the following meanings (see the
	      \product{fontname} documentation on
	      your computer for more details):
\begingroup\small \par\medskip\moveleft\itemindent\vbox{\begin{tabular}{@{}lll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Letter}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Examples}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\verb+f+&foundry&\verb+b+=Bitstream,
                      \verb+m+=Monotype,
                      \verb+p+=Adobe\\
\verb+nn+&typeface&\verb+ba+=Baskerville,
                      \verb+tm+=Times,
                      \verb+pl+=Palatino\\
\verb+ss+&series/shape&\verb+r+=roman,
                      \verb+bi+=bold italic, etc.\\
\verb+ee+&encoding&\verb+8a+=default 8-bit ANSI,
                      \verb+ly+=Y\amp Y's
                      \TeX{}'n'ANSI\\
{\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}\verb+c+}&[small]caps&(this is a literal
                      `c' character, used only
                      if needed)\\
\end{tabular}
}\endgroup
The \url+texmf/fontname+ directory in
              your installation of \LaTeX{} has files for several
              foundries giving fully-formed names like these for
              common fonts (e.g. \verb+ptmr8a+ is [Adobe]
              \uline{\textbf{P}}ost\-Script
              \uline{\textbf{T}}i\uline{\textbf{m}}es
              \uline{\textbf{R}}oman in an
              \uline{\textbf{8}}\ndash{}bit \uline{\textbf{A}}NSI
              encoding;
              \verb+bgslly+ is \uline{\textbf{B}}itstream
              \uline{\textbf{G}}ill \uline{\textbf{S}}ans
              \uline{\textbf{L}}ight in Y\amp Y's
              \TeX{}'n'ANSI encoding
              [\uline{\textbf{LY}}1]).\footnote{Confusingly, Bitstream fonts (and others from
                  similar sources) mostly have different names from
                  the original fonts, so what they call Humanist 521
                  is actually Gill Sans. Until recently, US law only
                  allowed the \emph{names} of typefaces
                  to be copyrighted, not the font designs themselves,
                  leading to widespread piracy.} Read the documentation in \titlecite{fontname} to find out how to make up
              your own short names if the foundry and font you want is
              not shown in the \url+fontname+
              directory.

In this example we'll call our mythical example
              typeface `zork' (standing for
              \uline{\textbf{Z}}fonts \uline{\textbf{Or}}dinary
              Boo\uline{\textbf{k}}face, because
              \verb+k+ is the letter used for Book
              fonts, \verb+b+ being already the code
              for bold) and we'll assume the font comes in the two
              files \url+foo.afm+ and
              \url+foo.pfb+ that I mentioned
              above.

While the \product{fontname}
              directories have ready-made lists of these names for
              popular collections of typefaces, making them up
              requires some knowledge of typographic terms and a
              careful reading of the
              \product{fontname}
              documentation.
\item \textbf{Decide on your encoding}\\
This is what tripped me up the first few times until
              someone pointed me at Y\amp Y's\footnote{Sadly, Y\amp Y, Inc has ceased trading and
		  their \TeX{} distribution is not longer available,
		  although there is email support at \url+http://lists.ucc.ie/lists/archives/yandytex.html+, 
		  and their encoding files continue to be used.}\TeX{}'n'ANSI encoding which (to me) seems to
              be the only one that includes the glyphs I want where I
              want them.\footnote{The only one I still have problems with is
		  `ø', which for some weird
		  reason isn't catered for in this encoding.}\index{fonts!encoding} Your mileage may vary. This encoding is
              referred to as \verb+LY1+ within \LaTeX{} and
              the encoding file is in
              \url+texmf/dvips/base/texnansi.enc+.
              Encoding is needed because Adobe fonts store their
              characters in different places to the \TeX{}
              standard.

Copy this encoding file to the temporary directory
              where you're doing all this stuff. If you're
              using the 8a or 8r encoding (or some other encoding),
              then copy that file instead
              (\url+8a.enc+,
              \url+8r.enc+).
\item \textbf{Convert \url+.afm+ files to
              \url+.tfm+}\\\label{idfile}%
The \product{afm2tfm} program is a
              standard utility in the \url+bin+
              directory of your \TeX{} installation. If it's not,
              update your installation.

In a command window, type:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
afm2tfm foo.afm -v zorkly.vpl -p texnansi.enc \
rzorkly.tfm >zork.id
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

(Here and elsewhere I have sometimes had to break
	      the line to fit it on the printed page. It's actually
	      all typed as one long line if you omit the
	      backslash.)

This creates a special `raw'\TeX{} Font Metric file (hence the special
              \verb+r+ prefix) that \LaTeX{} can use, with
              a list of all its properties encoded with LY1 (the
              \url+.vpl+ or Virtual Property List
              file). Many people will tell you that virtual fonts are
              dead and that this is the wrong way to do it, but no-one
              has ever shown me an alternative that works, so I stick
              with it.
\item \textbf{Small caps (optional)}\\\label{sc}%
If you want a small caps variant faked up (perhaps
              because the typeface family doesn't have a special
              small-caps font), repeat the medicine like this:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
afm2tfm foo.afm -V zorklyc.vpl -p texnansi.enc \
rzorkly.tfm >>zork.id
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Note the capital \verb+V+ option here.
              Yes, it \emph{does} overwrite the
              \url+rzorkly.tfm+ created in the first
              command. Let it. And those are \emph{two}
              of the `greater-than' signs
              before the \url+zork.id+ filename because
              we want to append to it, not overwrite it.
\item \textbf{Create the virtual font}\\
Turn the \url+.vpl+ files into
              \url+.vf+ and \url+.tfm+
              pairs. \LaTeX{} uses these to convert from Adobe's
              encoding to its own. 
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
vptovf zorkly.vpl zorkly.vf zorkly.tfm
vptovf zorklyc.vpl zorklyc.vf zorklyc.tfm
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Again, the \url+vptovf+ program is a
              standard part of your \TeX{} distribution.
\item \textbf{Make directories to hold the files}\\\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Making subdirectories to hold the files}
\label{mksubdir}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{fonts}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Under your \url+texmf-local+
              directory there should be a \url+fonts+
              directory, and in there there should be
              \url+afm+, \url+tfm+,
              \url+type1+, and \url+vf+
              directories. Create them if they do not already
              exist.

In each of these four, create a directory for the
              foundry, and within them create a directory for the
              typeface (using a human-readable typeface name, not the
              short \person{Karl  Berry} fontname). In our example, this
              means:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
cd /usr/TeX/texmf-local/fonts
mkdir -p afm/zfonts/ordinary
mkdir -p tfm/zfonts/ordinary
mkdir -p type1/zfonts/ordinary
mkdir -p vf/zfonts/ordinary
cd /tmp
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Or if you're lazy like me:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
(cd /usr/TeX/texmf-local/fonts;\
for d in afm tfm type1 vf;\
do mkdir -p $d/zfonts/ordinary;done)
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

For Microsoft Windows users, the path before
              \url+texmf-local+ may look something like
              \verb+C:\Program Files\TeXLive\+, depending
              on how and where you have installed your \TeX{}
              system.

The \verb+-p+ is a Unix feature: it
              automatically creates any missing intervening
              subdirectories. If your directory-making command
              doesn't do this, you'll have to make the
              intervening directories by hand first.
\item \textbf{Copy the files to their rightful places}\\
Copy the four groups of files to the four new
              directories:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
cp *.afm /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/afm/zfonts/ordinary/
cp *.tfm /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/tfm/zfonts/ordinary/
cp *.pfb /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/type1/zfonts/ordinary/
cp *.vf /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/vf/zfonts/ordinary/
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You can of course do all this with a directory
              window and mouse if you find it easier.
\item \textbf{Create a font map}\\
The font map is what tells
              \product{dvips} which PFB\index{PFB@PFB} file to use for which font. The
              configuration file for \product{dvips}
              is \url+texmf/dvips/config/config.ps+ and
              it gets its entries from the program
              \product{updmap} which reads map files
              for each typeface. The configuration file for
              \product{updmap} is
              \url+texmf-var/web2c/updmap.cfg+\footnote{There is another one of these at
                  \url+texmf/web2c/updmap.cfg+, but
                  that contains the map references for the fonts which
                  came with your distribution of \TeX{}, so you should
                  not interfere with it.}, so it needs an entry for our new font,
              using the three-letter font family abbreviation (the
              first three letters of the Berry fontname (here
              `\verb+zor+'):
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Map zor.map
            \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

We also have to create this map file
              (\url+zor.map+) in a subdirectory of
              \url+texmf-local/dvips/config/+ named
              after the foundry, so we need to create
              \url+texmf-local/dvips/config/zfonts+ as
              well.
\begin{enumerate}
\item 
Open
                  \url+/usr/TeX/texmf-var/web2c/updmap.cfg+
                  in your editor.
\item 
At the bottom, add the line:
                  \verb`Map zor.map`
\item 
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}

The font entries in our 
              \verb+zor.map+ will be on a
              \emph{single} line each, with no
              line-wrapping. Each entry gives the short name of the
              font, the long (Adobe) name, the
              PostScript\index{PostScript} encoding parameters
              (in quotes), and then two filenames prefixed by input
              redirects (less-than signs): the encoding file and the
              PostScript\index{PostScript} outline file.
\begin{enumerate}
\item 
First create the directory if it doesn't already
                  exist:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
mkdir -p /usr/TeX/texmf-local/dvips/config/zfonts
                \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item 
Use your editor to open (create) the file
                  \url+/usr/TeX/texmf-local/dvips/config/zfonts/zor.map+.
\item \label{fullname}%
Insert the line:
\begin{shiftedsourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\scriptsize]
rzorkly Ordinary-Blackface "TeXnANSIEncoding ReEncodeFont" <texnansi.enc <foo.pfb
                  \end{Verbatim}
\end{shiftedsourcecode}
\item 
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}

You get the full font name (here,
              `Ordinary-Blackface') from the
              \verb+zork.id+ which was created back in
              step~\ref{idfile} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{idfile} when we ran
              \product{afm2tfm}. You must get this
              exactly right, because it's the
              `official' full name of the font,
              and PostScript\index{PostScript} files using this
              font need to match it.
\item \textbf{Create a style file}\\
\LaTeX{} needs a style file to implement the
              interface to the font. Call it after the typeface or
              something related; in this example we'll call it
              \url+foozork.sty+. In it go some details
              of the name and date we did this, what version of
              \LaTeX{} it needs, and any other command necessary to
              operate the font, like the font encoding and whether it
              is to supersede the current default Roman font.
\begin{enumerate}
\item 
Use your editor to open (create)
		  \url+foozork.sty+ in your
		  \url+texmf-local/tex/latex/psnfss+
		  directory.
\item 
Insert the following lines:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
% foozork - created from foo for Zork
\def\fileversion{1.0}
\def\filedate{2002/12/03}
\def\docdate{2002/12/03}
\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}
\ProvidesPackage{foozork}
 [\filedate\space\fileversion\space 
  Zfonts Ordinary PSNFSS2e package]
\RequirePackage[LY1]{fontenc}
\renewcommand{\rmdefault}{zor}
\endinput
                \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Note the following:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
The first argument to
                      \command{ProvidesPackage} 
                      \emph{must} be the same as this
                      style file name; and that the font family is
                      referred to as \verb+zor+, being the
                      foundry letter plus the fontname abbreviation.
                      This acts as a prefix for any/all font variants
                      (bold, italic, etc.).

\item 
If you are not using Y\amp Y encoding,
                      omit the line referring to LY1 font
                      encoding.

\item 
If this is a typewriter font, make the
                      renewed command \command{rmdefault}
                      into \command{ttdefault}.

\item 
If it's a sans-serif font, make it
                      \command{sfdefault} instead.

\item 
Omit the command completely if you
                      don't want the style file to supersede the
                      current defaults but simply to make the font
                      available. If you do this, you probably want to
                      write a new command or two to use it, typically
                      one for grouped use and one for argument
                      use:

\end{itemize}
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
\newcommand{\zorkfamily}{\fontencoding{LY1}%
            \fontfamily{zor}\selectfont}
\newcommand{\textzork}[1]{{\zorkfamily#1}}
                \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item 
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Create the Font Definition file}\\\label{fdfiles}%
The last file to create is the \textbf{\textit{font definition}}\label{fontdef}\index{font definition@\textbf{\textit{font definition}}}
              (\url+.fd+) file.  This is named
              following the pattern \verb+eeefnn.fd+,
              using the same conventions as before, by prepending the
              (lowercase) encoding abbreviation to the foundry letter
              and fontname abbreviation, so our example would be
              \verb+ly1zor.fd+ for the LY1 encoding and
              the \verb+zor+ short font name.
\begin{enumerate}
\item 
Use your editor to open (create)
                  \url+texmf-local/tex/latex/psnfss/ly1zor.fd+
\item 
Enter the following lines:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\ProvidesFile{ly1zor.fd}[2002/03/03 v0.1 manual 
              font definitions for LY1/zor.]

\DeclareFontFamily{LY1}{zor}{}

\DeclareFontShape{LY1}{zor}{k}{n}{<-> zorkly}{}
\DeclareFontShape{LY1}{zor}{k}{sc}{<-> zorklyc}{}
                  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item 
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}

FD files typically use one
              \command{DeclareFontFamily} command which
              specifies the encoding and the short font name. Then as
              many pairs of \command{DeclareFontShape}
              commands as you converted fonts (assuming you did both
              normal and small caps for each font: see
              step~\ref{sc} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{sc}; if you didn't, then only one
              such command per font is needed here). The arguments to
              the \command{DeclareFontShape} command to watch
              are the 3rd (weight/width), 4th (shape), and 5th (font
              outline name): the rest are static for each
              \url+.fd+ file and simply identify the
              encoding and the font family.

The codes to use are given on
              pages 414\ndash{}15 of the \titlecite{companion} and should also be in
              your copies of
              \url+texmf/fontnames/weight.map+ and
              \url+texmf/fontnames/width.map+.  The
              rules for combining weight and width need care: RTFM\index{RTFM@RTFM} for
              \package{fontname}. There is no
              \url+shape.map+ in
              \package{fontname} because it's not
              part of font file names, it's purely a \LaTeX{}
              creation, so here's what the same book says:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ll}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Character}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\verb+n+&normal (upright)\\
\verb+it+&italic\\
\verb+sl+&slanted\\
\verb+sc+&small caps\\
\verb+ui+&upright italic\\
\verb+ol+&outline\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
Add your own for other oddities, but be consistent:
              I use \verb+cu+ for cursive (scripts), for
              example, and \verb+k+ for blackletter faces
              (not to be confused with \verb+k+ as a
              \emph{width} for
              `book').

The default fontspec
	      \verb+<->+ in the 5th argument
	      in the \command{DeclareFontShape} command means
	      that all sizes are to come from the same font outline
	      (remember if this was a \mf{} font with different
	      design sizes like CM\index{CM@CM} it would
	      be much more complex).

If the face has only a few variants, you can create
              any other entries for bold, italic, slanted, etc. with
              the relevant weight and width and shape values pointing
              at the relevant outline file.

If you want one font to substitute for a missing one
              (for example italics to substitute for slanted in a
              typeface which has no slanted variant of its own) give
              the
              \verb+ssub+ (`silent
                substitution') command in the fontspec:
              for example to make all references to
              \verb+sl+ (slanted) type use an existing
              italic font, make the 5th argument like this:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
{<-> ssub * zor/m/it}
              \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you find the x-height of a font too big or too
              small to sort well with another font you are using, you
              can specify an \verb+s+
              (`scale') factor in this argument
              instead: this example will shrink the result to
              80\% of normal:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
{<-> s * [0.8] zorkly}
              \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item \textbf{Update the index and the map files}\\
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}) so that
              \product{updmap} can find the files it
              needs.

Then run \product{updmap} (just
              type \verb+updmap+). This updates the
              maps and runs the \TeX{} indexer program again
              automatically.
\end{enumerate}

Now you can \verb+\usepackage{foozork}+ in
          your \LaTeX{} file to make it the default font. To use the
          font incidentally instead of as the default, you can
          say:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
This is {\zorkfamily ZORK} or \textzork{ZORK}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{Installing the Type 1 Computer Modern
          fonts}
\label{type1cm}

Most new distributions of \LaTeX{} use the
	  PostScript\index{PostScript} Type 1 versions of
	  the Computer Modern fonts. If your \LaTeX{} installation
	  uses the \mf{} (bitmap) versions of CM\index{CM@CM}, you may want to switch to the
	  Type 1 version, especially if you are going to be using
	  \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} instead of standard
          \LaTeX{}, because Acrobat Reader makes such a hames of
	  displaying Type3 fonts. \product{GSview}
	  and \product{pdfview} handle them
	  correctly.

To do this, install one of the sets of CM\index{CM@CM} PostScript fonts. There are several
	  available:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
The fonts from BlueSky Research at \url+http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/cm/ps-type1/bluesky/+

\item 
\person{Basil K. Malyshev}'s `BaKoMa'
	      fonts at \url+http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/cm/ps-type1/bakoma/+

\item 
\person{Vladimir Volovich}'s CM-Super  at \url+http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/ps-type1/cm-super/+

\item 
\person{Bogus\l{}aw Jackowski}'s Latin Modern at \url+ftp://cam.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/ps-type1/lm.tar.gz+

\end{itemize}

The BaKoMa fonts include the American
            Mathematical Society (AMS)\index{AMS@AMS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!AMS@AMS|textbf} fonts for extended
          mathematics, but are more complex to install because they
          come with a special set of TFM files.

The BlueSky fonts are just PFB\index{PFB@PFB}
          and AFM files, and are a drop-in replacement requiring no
          further changes, as they use the same TFM files as the
          \mf{} version. Follow the \url+README+
          file in the downloadable archive for installation
          instructions.

The Latin Modern and CM-Super fonts are new and I
          haven't tested them but they are well spoken of.
          Feedback on this is very welcome.

The \TeX{} Live and \TeX{} Collection distributions use
	  Type 1 versions of Computer Modern by default. There
	  are more details in the FAQ at \url+http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=uselmfonts+\thinspace{}.
\chapter{Programmability (macros)}
\label{macros}
\index{macros}
We've touched several times on the ability of \LaTeX{}
      to be reprogrammed. This is one of its central features, and one
      that still, after nearly a quarter of a century, puts it well
      above many other typesetting systems, even those with macro
      systems of their own. It's also the one that needs most
      foreknowledge, which is why this chapter is in this
      position.

\LaTeX{} is in fact itself just a collection of
      macros\mdash{}rather a big collection\mdash{}written in
      \TeX{}'s internal typesetting language. These \textbf{\textit{macros}}\label{macs}\index{macros@\textbf{\textit{macros}}} are little program-like sets of
      instructions with a name which can be used as shorthand for an
      operation you wish to perform more than once.

Macros can be arbitrarily complex. Many of the ones used in
      the standard \LaTeX{} packages are several pages long, but as we
      will see, even short ones can very simply automate otherwise
      tedious chores and allow the author to concentrate on
      \emph{writing}.
\section{Simple replacement macros}
\label{replacement}

In its simplest form, a \LaTeX{} macro can just be a
        straightforward text replacement of a phrase to avoid
        misspelling something each time you need it, e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\ef}{European Foundation for the 
    Improvement of Living and Working Conditions}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Put this in your preamble, and you can then use
        \command{ef} in your document and it will typeset it
        as the full text. Remember that after a command ending in a
        letter you need to leave a space to avoid the next word
        getting gobbled up as part of the command (see
      the first paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{swallow}). And when you want to force a space
        to be printed, use a backslash followed by a space,
        e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
The \ef\ is an institution of the Commission of the 
 European Union.
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

As you can see from this example, the
        \command{newcommand} command takes two arguments:
      \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item the name you want to give the new command;  and \item the expansion to be performed when you use it\end{inparaenum}, so there are always two sets of curly braces
        after \command{newcommand}.
\section{Macros using information gathered previously}
\label{macinf}

A more complex example is the macro
        \command{maketitle} which is used in almost every
        formal document to format the title block. In the basic
        document classes (book, report, and article) it performs small
        variations on the layout of a centred block with the title
        followed by the author followed by the date, as we saw in
        \S\thinspace\ref{titling}.

If you inspect one of these document class files, such as
        \url+texmf/tex/latex/base/report.cls+ you will
        see \command{maketitle} defined (and several variants
        called \command{@maketitle} for use in different
        circumstances). It uses the values for the title, author, and
        date which are assumed already to have been stored in the
        internal macros \command{@title},
        \command{@author}, and \command{@date} by
        the author using the matching \command{title},
        \command{author}, and \command{date}
        commands in the document.

This use of one command to store the information in
        another is a common way of gathering the information from the
        user. The use of macros containing the
        \verb+@+ character prevents their accidental
        misuse by the user: in fact to use them in your preamble we
        have to allow the \verb+@+ sign to become a
        `letter' so it can be recognised in a
        command name, and remember to turn it off again afterwards
        (see item~\ref{makeat} below).
\begin{sourcecode}\label{newtitle}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\makeatletter
\renewcommand{\maketitle}{%
   \begin{flushleft}%
      \sffamily
      {\Large\bfseries\color{red}\@title\par}%
      \medskip
      {\large\color{blue}\@author\par}%
      \medskip
      {\itshape\color{green}\@date\par}%
      \bigskip\hrule\vspace*{2pc}%
   \end{flushleft}%
}
\makeatother
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Insert this in the sample file on p.\thinspace\pageref{oldtitle} immediately before the
        \verb+\begin{document}+ and remove the
          \verb+\color{...}+ commands from the title,
        author, and date. Re-run the file through \LaTeX{}, and you
        should get something like this:
\begin{center}
\setlength{\fboxsep}{1cm}\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{newtitle}
\end{center}

In this redefinition of \command{maketitle},
        we've done the following:
\begin{enumerate}\item\label{makeat} 
Enclosed the changes in
            \command{makeatletter} and
            \command{makeatother} to allow us to use the
            \verb+@+ sign in command names;\footnote{If you move all this preamble into a style file of
                your own, you don't need these commands: the use
                of \url+@+ signs in command names is
                allowed in style and class files.}

\item 
Used \command{renewcommand} and put
            \command{maketitle} in curly braces after
            it;

\item 
Opened a pair of curly braces to hold the new
            definition. The closing curly brace is immediately before
            the \command{makeatother};

\item 
Inserted a \env{flushleft} environment
            so the whole title block is left-aligned;

\item 
Used \command{sffamily} so the whole title
            block is in the defined sans-serif typeface;

\item 
For each of \command{@title},
            \command{@author}, and \command{@date},
            we have used some font variation and colour, and enclosed
            each one in curly braces to restrict the changes just to
            each command. The closing \command{par} makes
            sure that multiline title and authors and dates get
            typeset with the relevant line-spacing;

\item 
Added some flexible space between the lines, and
            around the \command{hrule} (horizontal rule) at
            the end;

\end{enumerate}

Note the \verb+%+ signs after any line ending
        in a curly brace, to make sure no intrusive white-space find
        its way into the output. These aren't needed after simple
        commands where there is no curly brace because excess
        white-space gets gobbled up there anyway.
\section{Macros with arguments}
\label{macargs}

But macros are not limited to text expansion. They can
        take arguments of their own, so you can define a command to do
        something with specific text you give it. This makes them much
        more powerful and generic, as you can write a macro to do
        something a certain way, and then use it hundreds of times
        with a different value each time.

We looked earlier (\S\thinspace\ref{emph}) at making new
        commands to put specific classes of words into certain fonts,
        such as product names into italics, keywords into bold, and so
        on. Here's an example for a command
        \command{product}, which also indexes the product
        name and adds a trademark sign:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\product}[1]{%
        \textit{#1}\texttrademark%
        \index{#1@\textit{#1}}%
}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If I now type \verb+\tmproduct{Velcro}+ then I
        get \product{Velcro}\texttrademark{} typeset, and if
        you look in the index, you'll find this page referenced
        under `{\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}Velcro}'. Let's
        examine what this does:
\begin{enumerate}\item 
The macro is specified as having one argument
            (that's the \verb+[1]+ in the
            definition). This will
            be the product name you type in curly braces when you use
            \command{product}. Macros can have up to nine
            arguments.

\item 
The expansion of the macro is contained in the second
            set of curly braces, spread over several lines (see item~\ref{macrolines} for why).

\item 
It prints the value of the first argument (that's
            the \verb+#1+) in italics, which is
            conventional for product names, and adds the
            \command{texttrademark} command.

\item 
Finally, it creates an index entry using the same
            value (\verb+#1+), making sure that it's
            italicised in the index (see the list on p.\thinspace\pageref{indextypo} in \S\thinspace\ref{indextypo} to remind yourself of how indexing
            something in a different font works).

\item\label{macrolines} 
Typing this macro over several lines makes it easier
            for humans to read. I could just as easily have
            typed
\begin{shiftedsourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
\newcommand{\product}[1]{\textit{#1}\index{#1@\textit{#1}}}
          \end{Verbatim}
\end{shiftedsourcecode}

but it wouldn't have been as clear what I was
            doing.

One thing to notice is that to prevent unwanted spaces
            creeping into the output when \LaTeX{} reads the macro, I
            ended each line with a comment character
            (\verb+%+). \LaTeX{} normally treats
            newlines as spaces when formatting (remember item~\ref{comment}), so this stops the end of line
            being turned into an unwanted space when the macro is
            used. \LaTeX{} always ignores spaces at the
            \emph{start} of macro lines anyway, so
            indenting lines for readability is fine.

\end{enumerate}

In  (\S\thinspace\ref{hyph}) we mentioned the problem
        of frequent use of unbreakable text leading to poor
        justification or to hyphenation problems. A solution is to
        make a macro which puts the argument into an
        \command{mbox} with the appropriate font change, but
        precedes it all with a conditional
        \command{linebreak} which will make it more
        attractive to \TeX{} to start a new line.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\var}[1]{\linebreak[3]\mbox{\ttfamily#1}}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This only works effectively if you have a reasonably wide
        setting and paragraphs long enough for the differences in
        spacing elsewhere to get hidden. If you have to do this in
        narrow journal columns, you may have to adjust wording and
        spacing by hand occasionally.
\section{Nested macros}
\label{macnest}

Here's a slightly more complex example, where one
        macro calls another. It's common in normal text to refer
        to people by their forename and surname (in that order), for
        example \person{Don  Knuth}, but to have them indexed as \emph{surname,
          forename}. This pair of macros,
        \command{person} and \command{reindex},
        automates that process to minimize typing and indexing.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\person}[1]{#1\reindex #1\sentinel}
\def\reindex #1 #2\sentinel{\index{#2, #1}}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{enumerate}\item 
The digit 1 in square brackets means that
            \command{person} has one argument, so you put the
            whole name in a single set of curly braces, e.g.
            \verb+\person{Don Knuth}+.

\item 
The first thing the macro does is output
        \verb+#1+, which is the value of what you typed,
            just as it stands, so the whole name gets typeset exactly
            as you typed it.

\item 
But then it uses a special feature of Plain \TeX{}
            macros (which use \command{def} instead of
            \LaTeX{}'s \command{newcommand}\footnote{Don't try this at home alone, children! This
                one is safe enough, but you should strictly avoid
                \command{def} for a couple of years. Stick to
                \command{newcommand} for now.}): they too can have multiple arguments but you
            can separate them with other characters (here a space) to
            form a pattern which \TeX{} will recognise when reading the
            arguments.

In this example (\command{reindex}) it's
            expecting to see a string of characters
            (\verb+#1+) followed by a space, followed by
            another string of characters (\verb+#2+)
            followed by a dummy command (\command{sentinel}).
            In effect this makes it a device for splitting a name into
            two halves on the space between them, so the two halves
            can be handled separately. The \command{reindex}
            command can now read the two halves of the name
            separately.

\item 
The \command{person} command invokes
            \command{reindex} and follows it with the name
            you typed plus the dummy command
            \command{sentinel} (which is just there to signal
            the end of the name). Because \command{reindex}
            is expecting two arguments separated by a space and
            terminated by a \command{sentinel}, it sees
            `\verb+Don+ and
              \verb+Knuth+' as two separate
            arguments.

It can therefore output them using
            \command{index} in reverse order, which is
            exactly what we want.

\end{enumerate}

A book or report with a large number of personal names to
        print and index could make significant use of this to allow
        them to be typed as
        \verb+\person{Leslie Lamport}+ and printed as
        \person{Leslie Lamport}, but have them indexed as
        `Lamport, Leslie' with virtually no effort
        on the author's part at all.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{20}Other names}
\subsubsection*{Other names}
Try to work out how to make this
          \command{person} feature work with names
          like:
\begin{itemize*}
\item Blanca Maria Bartosova de Paul
\item Patricia Maria Soria de Miguel
\item Arnaud de la Villèsbrunne
\item Prince
\item Pope John Paul II
\end{itemize*}

Hints: the command \command{space} produces a
          normal space, and one way around \LaTeX{}'s requirements
          on spaces after command names ending with a letter is to
          follow such commands with an empty set of curly braces
          \verb+{}+.
\end{exercise}
\section{Macros and environments}
\label{macenv}

As mentioned in \S\thinspace\ref{fancybox}, it is possible
        to define macros to capture text in an environment and reuse
        it afterwards. This avoids any features of the subsequent use
        affecting the formatting of the text.

One example of this uses the facilities of the
        \package{fancybox} package, which defines a
        variety of framed boxes to highlight your text, and a special
        environment \env{Sbox} which
        `captures' your text for use in these
        boxes.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{Sbox}
\begin{minipage}{3in}
This text is formatted to the specifications 
of the minipage environment in which it 
occurs.

Having been typeset, it is held in the Sbox 
until it is needed, which is after the end 
of the minipage, where you can (for example) 
align it and put it in a special framed box.
\end{minipage}
\end{Sbox}
\begin{flushright}
\shadowbox{\theSbox}
\end{flushright}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{sidebar}
This text is formatted to the specifications of the
            minipage environment in which it occurs.

Having been typeset, it is held in the Sbox until it
            is needed, which is after the end of the minipage, where
            you can (for example) centre it and put it in a special
            framed box.
\end{sidebar}\end{quote}\end{example}

By putting the text (here in a
        \env{minipage} environment because we want to
        change the width) inside the \env{Sbox}
        environment, it is typeset into memory and stored in the macro
        \command{theSbox}. It can then be used afterwards as
        the argument of the \command{shadowbox} command (and
        in this example it has also been centred).
\section{Reprogramming \LaTeX{}'s internals}
\label{reprog}

\LaTeX{}'s internal macros can also be reprogrammed or
        even rewritten entirely, although doing this can require a
        considerable degree of expertise. Simple changes, however, are
        easily done.

Recall that \LaTeX{}'s default document structure for
        the Report document class uses Chapters as the main unit of
        text, whereas in reality most reports are divided into
        Sections, not Chapters (\S\thinspace\ref{repchap}). The result
        of this is that if you start off your report with
        \verb+\section{Introduction}+, it will print
        as

{\Large{}\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}0.1\quad Introduction\emstrut}

\noindent which is not at all what you want. The zero is
        caused by it not being part of any chapter. But this numbering
        is controlled by macros, and you can redefine them. In this
        case it's a macro called \verb+\thesection+
        which reproduces the current section number counter (see the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{thecounter}). It's redefined afresh in each
        document class file, using the command
        \command{renewcommand} (in this case in
        \url+texmf/tex/latex/base/report.cls+):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand \thesection 
   {\thechapter.\@arabic\c@section}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You can see it invokes \command{thechapter}
        (which is defined elsewhere to reproduce the value of the
        \counter{chapter} counter), and it
        then prints a dot, followed by the Arabic value of the counter
        called \counter{section} (that
        \verb+\c@+ notation is \LaTeX{}'s internal way
        of referring to counters). You can redefine this in your
        preamble to simply leave out the reference to chapters:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\thesection}{\arabic{section}}
      \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

I've used the more formal method of enclosing the
        command being redefined in curly braces. For largely
        irrelevant historical reasons these braces are often omitted
        in \LaTeX{}'s internal code (as you may have noticed in
        the example earlier). And I've also used the
        `public' macro
        \command{arabic} to output the value of \counter{section} (\LaTeX{}'s internals
        use a `private' set of control
        sequences containing \verb+@+-signs, designed to
        protect
        them against being changed accidentally).

Now the introduction to your report will start
        with:

{\Large{}\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}1\quad Introduction\emstrut}

What's important is that you \emph{don't
          ever} need to alter the original document class
        file \url+report.cls+: you just copy the
        command you need to change into your own document preamble,
        and modify that instead. It will then override the
        default.
\subsection{Changing list item bullets}
\label{bullets}

As mentioned earlier (\S\thinspace\ref{labelitem}),
          here's how to redefine a bullet for an itemized list,
          with a slight tweak:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{bbding}
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{%
        \raisebox{-.25ex}{\PencilRight}}
        \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Here we use the \package{bbding} package
          which has a large selection of
          `dingbats' or little icons, and we
          make the label for top-level itemized lists print a
          right-pointing pencil (the names for the icons are in the
          package documentation: see \S\thinspace\ref{packagedoc} for
          how to get it).

In this case, we are using the
          \command{raisebox} command within the redefinition
          because it turns out that the symbols in this font are
          positioned slightly too high for the typeface we're
          using. The \command{raisebox} command takes two
          arguments: the first is a dimension, how much to raise the
          object by (and a negative value means
          `lower': there is no need for a
          \verb+\lowerbox+ command); and the second is
          the text you want to affect. Here, we are shifting the
          symbol down by ¼ex (see \S\thinspace\ref{dimensions}
          for a
          list of dimensions \LaTeX{} can use).

There is a vast number of symbols available: see
          \titlecite{symbol-list} for a
          comprehensive list.
\chapter{Compatibility with other systems}
\label{compat}

As we saw in \chaptername~\ref{plaintext}, \LaTeX{} uses
      plain-text files, so they can be read and written by any
      standard application that can open text files. This helps
      preserve your information over time, as the plain-text format
      cannot be obsoleted or hijacked by any manufacturer or sectoral
      interest, and it will always be readable on any computer, from
      your handheld (yes, \LaTeX{} is available for some PDA\index{PDA@PDA}s, see Figure~\ref{zaurus}) to the
      biggest supercomputer.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small \LaTeX{} editing and processing on the Sharp Zaurus 5500
	PDA}
\label{zaurus}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{zedit}\quad\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{zlatex}\quad\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{qpdf}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

However, \LaTeX{} is intended as the last stage of the
      editorial process: formatting for print or display. If you have
      a requirement to re-use the text in some other
      environment\mdash{}a database perhaps, or on the Web or a
      CD-ROM\index{CD-ROM@CD-ROM} or DVD\index{DVD@DVD}, or in Braille or voice output\mdash{}then
      it should probably be edited, stored, and maintained in
      something neutral like the Extensible Markup
	Language (XML)\index{XML@XML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!XML@XML|textbf}, and only converted to \LaTeX{} when a
      typeset copy is needed.

Although \LaTeX{} has many structured-document features in
      common with SGML\index{SGML@SGML} and XML\index{XML@XML}, it can still only be processed by the
      \LaTeX{} and \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} programs.
      Because its macro features make it almost infinitely
      redefinable, processing it requires a program which can unravel
      arbitrarily complex macros, and \LaTeX{} and its siblings are
      the only programs which can do that effectively. Like other
      typesetters and formatters (Quark
      \product{XPress},
      \product{PageMaker},
      \product{FrameMaker}, Microsoft
      \product{Publisher}, \product[3]{3B2} etc.), \LaTeX{} is largely a
      one-way street leading to typeset printing or display
      formatting.

Converting \LaTeX{} to some other format therefore means you
      will unavoidably lose some formatting, as \LaTeX{} has features
      that others systems simply don't possess, so they cannot be
      translated\mdash{}although there are several ways to minimise
      this loss. Similarly, converting other formats into \LaTeX{}
      often means editing back the stuff the other formats omit
      because they only store appearances, not structure.

However, there are at least two excellent systems for
      converting \LaTeX{} directly to HyperText
	Markup Language (HTML)\index{HTML@HTML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!HTML@HTML|textbf} so you can publish it on the web, as
      we shall see in \S\thinspace\ref{latexto}.
\section{Converting into \LaTeX{}}
\label{tolatex}

There are several systems which will save their text in
        \LaTeX{} format. The best known is probably the \LyX{} editor
	(see Figure~\ref{lyxwin}), which is a wordprocessor-like
	interface to \LaTeX{} for Windows and Unix. Both the
	\product{AbiWord} and
	\product{Kword} wordprocessors on Linux
	systems have a very good \textbf{Save As}\dots \LaTeX{}
	output, so they can be used to open Microsoft
	\product{Word} documents and convert to
	\LaTeX{}. Several maths packages like the
	\product{EuroMath} editor, and the
	\product{Mathematica} and
	\product{Maple} analysis packages, can also
	save material in \LaTeX{} format.

In general, most other wordprocessors and DTP systems
	either don't have the level of internal markup
	sophistication needed to create a \LaTeX{} file, or they lack
	a suitable filter to enable them to output what they do have.
	Often they are incapable of outputting any kind of structured
	document, because they only store what the text looks like,
	not why it's there or what role it fulfills. There are
	two ways out of this:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
Use the \menuitem{File}{Save
	      As\dots } menu item to save the
	    wordprocessor file as HTML\index{HTML@HTML},
	    rationalise the HTML\index{HTML@HTML} using
          \person{Dave  Raggett}'s \product{HTML
		Tidy}\footnote{\url+http://tidy.sourceforge.net/+}, and convert the resulting
	    Extensible HyperText Markup
	      Language (XHTML)\index{XHTML@XHTML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!XHTML@XHTML|textbf} to \LaTeX{} with any
	    of the standard XML\index{XML@XML} tools (see
	    below).

\item 
Use a specialist conversion tool like EBT's
	    \product{DynaTag} (supposedly available
	    from Enigma, if you can persuade them they have a copy to
	    sell you; or you may still be able to get it from Red Bridge
	      Interactive\footnote{\url+http://www.rbii.com/+} in Providence, RI). It's
	    expensive and they don't advertise it, but for bulk
	    conversion of consistently-marked
	    \product{Word} files into XML it beats
	    everything else hands down. The
	    \product{Word} files
	    \emph{must} be consistent, though, and must
	    use named styles from a stylesheet, otherwise no system on
	    earth is going to be able to guess what it means.

\end{itemize}

There is of course a third way, suitable for large volumes
	only: send it off to the Pacific Rim to be retyped into XML or
	\LaTeX{}. There are hundreds of companies from India to
	Polynesia who do this at high speed and low cost with very
	high accuracy. It sounds crazy when the document is already in
	electronic form, but it's a good example of the problem
	of low quality of wordprocessor markup that this solution
	exists at all.

You will have noticed that most of the solutions lead to
	one place: SGML\index{SGML@SGML}\footnote{The Standard Generalized Markup
	      Language (SGML)\index{SGML@SGML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!SGML@SGML|textbf} itself is little used now for new
	    projects, as the software support for its daughter
	    XML\index{XML@XML} is far greater, but there
	    are still hundreds of large document repositories in
	    SGML\index{SGML@SGML} still growing their collection by
	      adding documents.} or XML\index{XML@XML}. As explained
	above and elsewhere, these formats are the only ones devised
	so far capable of storing sufficient information in
	machine-processable, publicly-accessible form to enable your
	document to be recreated in multiple output formats.  Once
	your document is in XML\index{XML@XML}, there is a
	large range of software available to turn it into other
	formats, including \LaTeX{}. Processors in any of the common
	SGML\index{SGML@SGML}/XML\index{XML@XML}
	processing languages like the Document
	  Style Semantics and Specification Language (DSSSL)\index{DSSSL@DSSSL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DSSSL@DSSSL|textbf}, the
	Extensible Stylesheet Language
	  [Transformations] (XSLT)\index{XSLT@XSLT|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!XSLT@XSLT|textbf},
	\product{Omnimark},
	\product{Metamorphosis},
	\product{Balise}, etc. can easily be written
	to output \LaTeX{}, and this approach is extremely
	common.

Much of this will be simplified when wordprocessors
	support native, arbitrary XML\index{XML@XML}/XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} as a
	standard feature, because \LaTeX{} output will become much
	simpler to produce.
\begin{itemize}
\item 
Sun's \product{Star Office} and
	    its Open Source sister,
	    \product{OpenOffice}, have used XML as
	    their native file format for several years, and there is a
	    project at the Organisation for the
	      Advancement of Structured Information Systems (OASIS)\index{OASIS@OASIS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!OASIS@OASIS|textbf}
	    for developing a common XML\index{XML@XML}
	    office file format based on those used by these two
	    packages, which has been proposed to the International Organization for
	      Standardization (ISO)\index{ISO@ISO|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!ISO@ISO|textbf} in Geneva as a candidate for
	    an International Standard.

\item 
\product{WordPerfect} has also had a
	    native SGML\index{SGML@SGML} (and now XML\index{XML@XML}) editor for many years, which will
	    work with any Document Type
	      Definition (DTD)\index{DTD@DTD|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DTD@DTD|textbf} (but not a Schema; and at the time
	    of writing (2005) it still used a proprietary stylesheet
	    format).

\item 
Microsoft has had a half-hearted `Save
	      As\dots XML' for a while, using an
	    internal and formerly largely undocumented Schema (recently
	    published at last). The
	    `Professional' versions of
	    \product{Word} and
	    \product{Excel} in
	    \product{Office 11} (Office 2003 for
	    XP) now have full support for arbitrary Schemas and a real
	    XML\index{XML@XML} editor, albeit with a rather
	    primitive interface, but there is no conversion to or from
	    \product{Word}'s
	    \url+.doc+ format.\footnote{Which is silly, given that Microsoft used to make
		one of the best
		\product{Word}-to-SGML\index{SGML@SGML} converters ever, which was
		bi-directional (yes, it could round-trip
		\product{Word} to SGML\index{SGML@SGML} and back to
		\product{Word} and back into SGML\index{SGML@SGML}). But they dropped it on the
		floor when XML\index{XML@XML}
		arrived.}

However, help comes in the shape of \person{Ruggero Dambra's
	  } \product{WordML2\LaTeX{}}, 
	    which is an XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} stylesheet to
	    transform an XML\index{XML@XML} document in
	    this internal Schema (WordML) into \LaTeXe{} format.
	    Download it from
	    any CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} server in
	    \url+/support/WordML2LaTeX+.

\item\label{rtf2latex2e} 
Among the conversion programs on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} is \person{Ujwal Sath\-yam}'s \product{rtf2latex2e},
	    which converts Rich Text
	      Format (RTF)\index{RTF@RTF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!RTF@RTF|textbf} files (output by many wordprocessors)
	    to \LaTeXe{}. The package
	    description says it has support for figures and tables,
	    equations are read as figures, and  it can the handle the
	    latest RTF\index{RTF@RTF} versions from
	    Microsoft Word 97/98/2000, StarOffice, and other
	    wordprocessors. It runs on Macs, Linux, other Unix
	    systems, and Windows.

\end{itemize}

When these efforts coalesce into generalised support for
	arbitrary DTD\index{DTD@DTD}s and Schemas, it will
	mean a wider choice of editing interfaces, and when they
	achieve the ability to run XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT}
	conversion into
        \LaTeX{} from within these editors,  such as is done at the
	moment with \product{Emacs} or
	\product{XML Spy}, we will have full
	convertability.
\subsection{Getting \LaTeX{} out of XML}

Assuming you can get your document out of its
	  wordprocessor format into XML\index{XML@XML} by
	  some method, here is a very brief example of how to turn it
	  into \LaTeX{}.

You can of course buy and install a fully-fledged
	  commercial XML\index{XML@XML} editor with
	  XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} support, and run this
	  application within it. However, this is beyond the reach of
	  many users, so to do this unaided you just need to install
	  three pieces of software: \product{Java}\footnote{\url+http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html+}, 
	  \product{Saxon}\footnote{\url+http://saxon.sourceforge.net/+} 
	  and the DocBook
	    4.2 DTD\footnote{\url+http://www.docbook.org/xml/4.2/index.html+} (URI\index{URI@URI}s are
	  correct at the time of writing). None of these has a visual
	  interface: they are run from the command-line in the same
	  way as is possible with \LaTeX{}.

As an example, let's take the above paragraph, as typed
	  or imported into \product{AbiWord} (see
	Figure~\ref{abidoc}). This is stored as a single
	  paragraph with highlighting on the product names (italics),
	  and the names are also links to their Internet sources, just
	  as they are in this document. This is a convenient way to
	  store two pieces of information in the same place.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Sample paragraph in
	    \emph{AbiWord} converted to XML\index{XML@XML}}
\label{abidoc}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=1\textwidth]{abiword}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\product{AbiWord} can export in DocBook
	  format, which is an XML\index{XML@XML} vocabulary
	  for describing technical (computer) documents\ndash{}it's
	  what I use for this book. \product{AbiWord}
	  can also export \LaTeX{}, but we're going make our own
	  version, working from the XML\index{XML@XML}
	  (Brownie points for the reader who can guess why I'm not
	  just accepting the \LaTeX{} conversion output).

Although \product{AbiWord}'s default is
	  to output an XML\index{XML@XML} \texttt{book} document
	  type, we'll convert it to a \LaTeX{} article document class.
	  Notice that \product{AbiWord} has correctly
	  output the expected section and title markup empty, even
	  though it's not used. Here's the XML\index{XML@XML} output (I've changed the linebreaks
	  to keep it within the bounds of this page size):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\tiny]
<!DOCTYPE book PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook XML V4.2//EN" 
        "http://www.oasis-open.org/docbook/xml/4.2/docbookx.dtd">
<book>
<!-- ===================================================================== -->
<!-- This DocBook file was created by AbiWord.                    -->
<!-- AbiWord is a free, Open Source word processor.                -->
<!-- You may obtain more information about AbiWord at www.abisource.com -->
<!-- ===================================================================== -->
  <chapter>
    <title></title>
    <section role="unnumbered">
      <title></title>
      <para>You can of course buy and install a fully-fledged commercial XML 
editor with XSLT support, and run this application within it. However, this 
is beyond the reach of many users, so to do this unaided you just need to 
install three pieces of software: <ulink
url="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html"><emphasis>Java</emphasis></ulink>,
<ulink 
url="http://saxon.sourceforge.net"><emphasis>Saxon</emphasis></ulink>, and 
the <ulink url="http://www.docbook.org/xml/4.2/index.html">DocBook 4.2 DTD</ulink> 
(URIs are correct at the time of writing). None of these has a visual 
interface: they are run from the command-line in the same way as is possible 
with L<superscript>A</superscript>T<subscript>E</subscript>X.</para> 
    </section>
  </chapter>
</book>
	  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} language lets us
	  create templates for each type of element in an XML\index{XML@XML} document. In our example, there are
	  only three which need handling, as we did not create chapter
	  or section titles (DocBook requires them to be present, but
	  they don't have to be used).
\begin{itemize}
\item 
\texttt{para}, for the
	      paragraph[s];

\item 
\texttt{ulink}, for the URIs;

\item 
\texttt{emphasis}, for the
	      italicisation.

\end{itemize}

I'm going to cheat over the superscripting and
	  subscripting of the letters in the \LaTeX{} logo, and use my
	  editor to replace the whole thing with the
	  \command{LaTeX} command. In the other three cases,
	  we already know how \LaTeX{} deals with these, so we can
	  write our templates (see Figure~\ref{xslcode}).
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} script to convert the
	    paragraph}
\label{xslcode}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<xsl:stylesheet 
 xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform"
 version="1.0">
  <xsl:output method="text"/>

  <xsl:template match="/">
    <xsl:text>\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{url}</xsl:text>
    <xsl:apply-templates/>
  </xsl:template>

  <xsl:template match="book">
    <xsl:text>\begin{document}</xsl:text>
    <xsl:apply-templates/>
    <xsl:text>\end{document}</xsl:text>
  </xsl:template>

  <xsl:template match="para">
    <xsl:apply-templates/>
    <xsl:text>&#x000A;</xsl:text>
  </xsl:template>

  <xsl:template match="ulink">
    <xsl:apply-templates/>
    <xsl:text>\footnote{\url{</xsl:text>
    <xsl:value-of select="@url"/>
    <xsl:text>}}</xsl:text>
  </xsl:template>

  <xsl:template match="emphasis">
    <xsl:text>\emph{</xsl:text>
    <xsl:apply-templates/>
    <xsl:text>}</xsl:text>
  </xsl:template>

</xsl:stylesheet>
	    \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\end{figure}

If you run this through
	  \product{Saxon}, which is an XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} processor, you can output a \LaTeX{}
	  file which you can process and view (see Figure~\ref{paraview}).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\scriptsize]
$ java -jar /usr/local/saxonb8-0/saxon8.jar -o para.ltx \
para.dbk para.xsl
$ latex para.ltx
This is TeX, Version 3.14159 (Web2C 7.3.7x)
(./para.ltx
LaTeX2e <2001/06/01>
Loading CZ hyphenation patterns: Pavel Sevecek, v3, 1995
Loading SK hyphenation patterns: Jana Chlebikova, 1992
Babel <v3.7h> and hyphenation patterns for english, 
dumylang, nohyphenation, czech, slovak, german, ngerman, 
danish, spanish, catalan, finnish, french, ukenglish, greek, 
croatian, hungarian, italian, latin, mongolian, dutch, 
norwegian, polish, portuguese, russian, ukrainian, 
serbocroat, swedish, loaded. 
(/usr/TeX/texmf/tex/latex/base/article.cls
Document Class: article 2001/04/21 v1.4e Standard LaTeX 
document class (/usr/TeX/texmf/tex/latex/base/size10.clo))
(/usr/TeX/texmf/tex/latex/ltxmisc/url.sty) (./para.aux) 
[1] (./para.aux) )
Output written on para.dvi (1 page, 1252 bytes).
Transcript written on para.log.
$ xdvi para &
	  \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Displaying the typeset paragraph}
\label{paraview}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{para}
\end{center}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\scriptsize]
\documentclass{article}\usepackage{url}\begin{document}
      
      You can of course buy and install a fully-fledged commercial 
XML editor with XSLT support, and run this application within it. 
However, this is beyond the reach of many users, so to do this 
unaided you just need to install three pieces of software: 
\emph{Java}\footnote{\url{http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html}},
\emph{Saxon}\footnote{\url{http://saxon.sourceforge.net}}, and the 
DocBook 4.2 DTD\footnote{\url{http://www.docbook.org/xml/4.2/index.html}} 
(URIs are correct at the time of writing). None of these has a visual 
interface: they are run from the command-line in the same way as is 
possible with \LaTeX.
  
\end{document}
	    \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\end{figure}

Writing XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} is not hard, but
	  requires a little learning. The output method here is
	  \verb+text+, which is \LaTeX{}'s file format
	  (XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} can also output HTML\index{HTML@HTML} and other formats of XML).
\begin{enumerate}\item 
The first template matches
	      `\verb+/+', which is
	      the document root (before the \texttt{book}
	      start-tag). At this stage we output the text
	      \verb+\documentclass{article}+ and
	      \verb+\usepackage{url}+. The
	      `\verb+apply-templates+' 
	      instructions tells the processor to carry on processing,
	      looking for more matches. XML\index{XML@XML}
	      comments get ignored, and any elements which don't match
	      a template simply have their contents passed through
	      until the next match occurs.

\item 
The \texttt{book} template outputs the
	      \verb+\begin{document}+ and the
	      \verb+\end{document}+ commands, and between
	      them to carry on processing.

\item 
The \texttt{para} template just outputs
	      its content, but follows it with a linebreak (using the
	      hexadecimal character code \verb+x000A+ (see
	      the ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} chart in Table~\ref{asciicodes}).

\item 
The \texttt{ulink} template outputs its
	      content but follows it with a footnote using the
	      \command{url} command to output the value of
	      the \texttt{url} attribute.

\item 
The \texttt{emphasis} template surrounds
	      its content with \verb+\emph{+ and
	      \verb+}+.

\end{enumerate}

This is a relatively trivial example, but it serves to
	  show that it's not hard to output \LaTeX{} from XML\index{XML@XML}. In fact there is a set of templates
	  already written to produce \LaTeX{} from a DocBook file at
	  \url+http://www.dpawson.co.uk/docbook/tools.html#d4e2905+
\section{Converting out of \LaTeX{}}
\label{latexto}

This is much harder to do comprehensively. As noted
	earlier, the \LaTeX{} file format really requires the \LaTeX{}
	program itself in order to process all the packages and
	macros, because there is no telling what complexities authors
	have added themselves (what a lot of this book is
	about!).

Many authors and editors rely on custom-designed or
	homebrew converters, often written in the standard shell
	scripting languages (Unix shells, Perl, Python, Tcl, etc).
	Although some of the packages presented here are also written
	in the same languages, they have some advantages and
	restrictions compared with private conversions:
\begin{itemize}
\item 
Conversion done with the standard utilities (eg awk,
	    tr, sed, grep, detex, etc) can be faster for
	    \emph{ad hoc} translations, but it
	    is easier to obtain consistency and a more sophisticated
	    final product using
	  \LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} or
	    \TeX{}4ht\mdash{}or one of the other systems
	    available.

\item 
Embedding additional non-standard control sequences in
	  \LaTeX{} source code may make it harder to edit and
	    maintain, and will definitely make it harder to port to
	    another system.

\item 
Both the above methods (and others) provide a fast and
	    reasonable reliable way to get documents authored in
	    \LaTeX{} onto the Web in an acceptable\mdash{}if not
	    optimal\mdash{}format.

\item 
\LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} was written to
	    solve the problem of getting \LaTeX{}-with-mathematics
	    onto the Web, in the
	    days before MathML and math-capable browsers.
	    \TeX{}4ht was written to turn \LaTeX{} documents into Web
	    hypertext\mdash{}mathematics or not.

\end{itemize}
\subsection{Conversion to \emph{Word}}

There are several programs on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} to do
        \LaTeX{}-to-\product{Word} and similar
	  conversions, but they do not all handles everything \LaTeX{}
	  can throw at them, and some only handle a subset of the
	  built-in commands of default
	  \LaTeX{}. Two in particular, however, have a good
	  reputation, although I haven't used either of them (I stay
	  as far away from \product{Word} as
	  possible):
\begin{itemize}
\item 
\product{latex2rtf} by \person{Wilfried Hennings}, \person{Fernando Dorner}, and \person{Andreas Granzer} translates
	      \LaTeX{} into RTF\index{RTF@RTF}\mdash{}the
	      opposite of the \product{rtf2latex2e}
	      mentioned in item~\ref{rtf2latex2e}the list on p.\thinspace\pageref{rtf2latex2e}. RTF\index{RTF@RTF} can be read by most
	      wordprocessors, and this program preserves layout and
	      formatting for most \LaTeX{} documents using standard
	      built-in commands.

\item 
\person{Kirill Chikrii}'s \product[tex2word]{\TeX{}2Word} for
	      Microsoft Windows is a converter plug-in for
	      \product{Word} to let it open \TeX{}
	      and \LaTeX{} documents. The author's company claims that
	      `virtually any existing \TeX{}/\LaTeX{} package
		can be supported by \product[tex2word]{\TeX{}2Word}'
	      because it is customisable.

\end{itemize}

One easy route into wordprocessing, however, is the
	  reverse of the procedures suggested in the preceding
	  section: convert \LaTeX{} to HTML\index{HTML@HTML},
	  which many wordprocessors read easily. The following
	  sections cover two packages for this.
\subsection{\emph{\LaTeX{}2HTML}}

As its name suggests, \LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} is a system to convert \LaTeX{}
	  structured documents to HTML\index{HTML@HTML}. Its main task is to reproduce the
	  document structure as a set of interconnected HTML\index{HTML@HTML} files. Despite using Perl,
	  \LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} relies very heavily
	  on standard Unix facilities like the
	  \product{NetPBM} graphics package and the
	  pipe syntax. Microsoft Windows is not well suited to this
	  kind of composite processing, although all the required
	  facilities are available for download in various forms and
	  should in theory allow the package to run\mdash{}but reports
	  of problems are common.
\begin{itemize}
\item 
The sectional structure is preserved, and
	      navigational links are generated for the standard Next,
	      Previous, and Up directions.

\item 
Links are also used for the cross-references,
	      citations, footnotes, ToC, and lists of figures and
	      tables.

\item 
Conversion is direct for common elements like lists,
	      quotes, paragraph-breaks, type-styles, etc, where there
	      is an obvious HTML\index{HTML@HTML}
	      equivalent.

\item 
Heavily formatted objects such as math and diagrams
	      are converted to images.

\item 
There is no support for homebrew macros.

\end{itemize}

There is, however, support for arbitrary hypertext
	  links, symbolic cross-references between `evolving
	    remote documents', conditional text, and the
	  inclusion of raw HTML\index{HTML@HTML}. These are
	  extensions to
	  \LaTeX{}, implemented as new commands and
	  environments.

\LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} outputs a
	  directory named after the input filename, and all the output
	  files are put in that directory, so the output is
	  self-contained and can be uploaded to a server as it
	  stands.
\subsection{\emph{\TeX{}4ht}}

\TeX{}4ht operates differently from
	  \LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML}: it uses the \TeX{}
	  program to process the file, and handles conversion in a set
	  of postprocessors for the common \LaTeX{} packages. It can
	  also output to XML\index{XML@XML}, including Text Encoding
                Initiative (TEI)\index{TEI@TEI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TEI@TEI|textbf} and DocBook, and the OpenOffice and
	  WordXML formats, and it can create \TeX{}info format
	  manuals.

By default, documents retain the single-file structure
	  implied by the original, but there is again a set of
	  additional configuration directives to make use of the
	  features of hypertext and navigation, and to split files for
	  ease of use.
\subsection{Extraction from PS and PDF}

If you have the full version of Adobe
	  \product{Acrobat}, you can open a PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file created by
	  \product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, select and copy all the
	  text, and paste it into \product{Word} and
	  some other wordprocessors, and retain some common formatting
	  of headings, paragraphs, and lists. Both solutions still
	  require the wordprocessor text to be edited into shape, but
	  they preserve enough of the formatting to make it worthwhile
	  for short documents. Otherwise, use the
	  \product{pdftotext} program to extract
	  everything from the PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file as
	  plain (paragraph-formatted) text.
\subsection{Last resort: strip the markup}

At worst, the \product{detex} program
	  on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} will strip a \LaTeX{} file
	  of all markup and leave just the raw unformatted text, which
	  can then be re-edited. There are also programs to extract
	  the raw text from DVI\index{DVI@DVI} and PostScript (PS)\index{PS@PS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PS@PS|textbf} files.
\appendix
\chapter{Configuring \TeX{} search paths}
\label{cnf}

\TeX{} systems run on a huge variety of platforms, and are
      typically made up of a large number of rather small files. Some
      computer operating systems have problems with packages like
      this, as their built-in methods for searching for a file when
      needed are poor.

To get around this, \TeX{} uses a technique borrowed from the
      Unix world, based on a simple hash index for each directory they
      need to look in. This is known as the ls-R database, from the
      Unix command (\verb+ls -R+) which creates it. The
      program which does this for \TeX{} is actually called after this
      command: \product{mktexlsr}, although it may be
      renamed \product{texhash} or something else on
      your system. This is the program referred to in step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}.

However, to know where to make these indexes, and thus where
      to search, \TeX{} needs to be told about them. In a standard
      \TeX{} installation this information is in
      \url+texmf/web2c/texmf.cnf+. The file is similar
      to a Unix shell script, but the only lines of significance for
      the search paths are the following (this is how they appear in
      the default Unix installation, omitting the comments):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
TEXMFMAIN = /usr/TeX/texmf
TEXMFLOCAL = /usr/TeX/texmf-local
HOMETEXMF = $HOME/texmf
TEXMF = {$HOMETEXMF,!!$TEXMFLOCAL,!!$TEXMFMAIN}
SYSTEXMF = $TEXMF
VARTEXFONTS = /var/lib/texmf
TEXMFDBS = $TEXMF;$VARTEXFONTS
    \end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

As you can see, this defines where the main \TeX{}/\mf{}
      directory is, where the local one is, and where the user's
      personal (home) one is. It then defines the order in which they
      are searched, and makes this the system-wide list. A temporary
      directory for bitmap fonts is set up, and added to the list,
      defining the places in which \product{texhash}
      or \product{mktexlsr} creates its
      databases.

In some installations, the local directory is set up in
      \url+/usr/local/share/texmf+ or
      \url+/usr/share/texmf.local+ or similar
      variations, so you would substitute this name for
      \url+/usr/TeX/texmf-local+. Under Microsoft
      Windows, the names will be full paths such as
      \url+C:\Program Files\TeXLive\texmf+. On an Apple
      Mac, it might be \url+Hard
        Disk:TeX:texmf+.

If you edit plain-text configuration files with anything
      other than a plain-text editor (e.g. a wordprocessor), or
      if you edit them with a plain-text editor which has been set to
      word-wrap long lines, make sure you turn line-wrapping
      \emph{off} so that any long lines are preserved in
      their correct format.
\chapter{\TeX{} Users Group membership}
\label{tugform}

The \TeX{} Users Group (TUG)\index{TUG@TUG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TUG@TUG|textbf} was
      founded in 1980 for educational and scientific purposes: to
      provide an organization for those who have an interest in
      typography and font design, and are users of the \TeX{}
      typesetting system invented by Donald Knuth.
      TUG is run by and for its members and represents the interests
      of \TeX{} users worldwide.
\subsection*{TUG membership benefits}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{TUG membership benefits}

Members of TUG help to support and promote the use of
        \TeX{}, \mf{}, and related systems worldwide. All members
        receive \titlecite{tugboat},
        the journal of the \TeX{} Users Group, the \TeX{} Live software
        distribution (a runnable \TeX{} system), and the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} software distribution (containing most
        of the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} archive).

In addition, TUG members vote in TUG elections, and
        receive discounts on annual meeting fees, store purchases, and
        TUG-sponsored courses. TUG membership (less benefits) is
        tax-deductible, at least in the USA.  See the TUG Web site for
        details.
\subsection*{Becoming a TUG member}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Becoming a TUG member}

Please see the forms and information at \url+http://tug.org/join.html+.  You can join
        online, or by filling out a paper form. The NTG (Dutch) and
        UKTUG (United Kingdom) \TeX{} user groups have joint membership
        agreements with TUG whereby you can receive a discount for
        joining both user groups.  To do this, please join via \url+http://www.ntg.nl/newmember.html+ (the NTG
        membership page) or \url+http://uk.tug.org/Membership/+ (the UKTUG
        page), respectively, and select the option for joint
        membership.

Each year's membership entitles you to the software and
        TUGboat produced for that year (even if it is produced in a
        subsequent calendar year, as is currently the case with
        TUGboat).  You can order older issues of TUGboat and \TeX{}
        memorabilia through the TUG store (\url+http://tug.org/store+).

The current TUG membership fee is \$65 (US) per year
        for individuals and \$35 for students and seniors. Add
        \$10 to the membership fee after May 31 to cover
        additional shipping and processing costs. The current rate for
        non-voting subscription memberships (for libraries, for
        example) is \$85. The current institutional rate is
        \$500, which includes up to seven individual
        memberships.
\subsection*{Privacy}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Privacy}

TUG uses your personal information only to mail you
        products, publications, notices, and (for voting members)
        official ballots. Also, if you give explicit agreement, we may
        incorporate it into a membership directory which will be made
        available only to TUG members.

TUG neither sells its membership list nor provides it to
        anyone outside of its own membership.
\chapter{The ASCII character set}
\label{asciicharset}

The American Standard Code for Information Interchange was
      invented in 1963, and after some redevelopment settled down in
      1984 as standard X3.4 of American National
	Standards Institute (ANSI)\index{ANSI@ANSI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!ANSI@ANSI|textbf}. It represents the 95 basic
      codes for the unaccented printable characters and punctuation of
      the Latin alphabet, plus 33 internal `control
	characters' originally intended for the control of
      computers, programs, and external devices like printers and
      screens.

Many other character sets (strictly speaking,
      `character repertoires') have been standardised for
      accented Latin characters and for all other non-Latin writing
      systems, but these are intended for representing the symbols
      people use when writing text on computers. Most programs and
      computers use ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} internally for all
      their coding, the exceptions being XML\index{XML@XML}-based languages like XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT}, which are inherently designed to be
      usable with any writing system, and a few specialist systems
      like APL.

Although the \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} file formats can easily be
      used with many other encoding systems (see the discussion of the
      \package{inputenc} in \S\thinspace\ref{accents}), they are based on ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII}. It is therefore important to know
      where to find \emph{all} 95 of the printable
      characters, as some of them are not often used in other
      text-formatting systems. The following table shows all 128
      characters, with their decimal, octal (base-8), and hexadecimal
      (base-16) code numbers.
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small The ASCII characters}
\label{asciicodes}
\begin{center}
\setlength{\tabcolsep}{1mm}
\begin{tabular}{@{}>{$}r<{$\enspace}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\enspace$}l<{$}@{}}
\mbox{\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Oct}}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 0}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 1}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 2}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 3}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 4}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 5}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 6}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 7}&\mbox{\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Hex}}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
'00\UParrow&NUL&SOH&STX&ETX&EOT&ENQ&ACK&BEL&''0\UParrow\\[1mm]
'01\UParrow&BS&HT&LF&VT&FF&CR&SO&SI&''0\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'02\UParrow&DLE&DC1&DC2&DC3&DC4&NAK&SYN&ETB&''1\UParrow\\[1mm]
'03\UParrow&CAN&EM&SUB&ESC&FS&GS&RS&US&''1\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'04\UParrow&&!&"&\#&\$&\%&\amp &'&''2\UParrow\\[1mm]
'05\UParrow&(&)&*&+&,&-&.&/&''2\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'06\UParrow&0&1&2&3&4&5&6&7&''3\UParrow\\[1mm]
'07\UParrow&8&9&:&;&$<$&=&$>$&?&''3\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'10\UParrow&@&A&B&C&D&E&F&G&''4\UParrow\\[1mm]
'11\UParrow&H&I&J&K&L&M&N&O&''4\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'12\UParrow&P&Q&R&S&T&U&V&W&''5\UParrow\\[1mm]
'13\UParrow&X&Y&Z&[&$\backslash$&]&{\char'136}&{\ttfamily\char'137}&''5\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'14\UParrow&\`{}&a&b&c&d&e&f&g&''6\UParrow\\[1mm]
'15\UParrow&h&i&j&k&l&m&n&o&''6\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'16\UParrow&p&q&r&s&t&u&v&w&''7\UParrow\\[1mm]
'17\UParrow&x&y&z&{\ttfamily\char'173}&$|$&{\ttfamily\char'175}&{\char'176}&DEL&''7\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
\\[-1em]\hline\vrule height1.2em width0pt \textbf{}&\textbf{8}&\textbf{9}&\textbf{A}&\textbf{B}&\textbf{C}&\textbf{D}&\textbf{E}&\textbf{F}&\textbf{}\\[1mm]
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

The index numbers in the first and last columns are for
      finding the octal (base-8) and hexadecimal (base-16) values
      respectively. Replace the arrow with the number or letter from
      the top of the column (if the arrow points up) from the bottom
      of the column(if the arrow points down).

Example: The Escape character (ESC) is octal '033 (03 for
      the row, 3 for the number at the top of the column because the
      arrow points up) or hexadecimal "1B (1 for the row, B for the
      letter at the bottom of the column because the arrow points
      down).

For the decimal value, multiply the Octal row number by
      eight and add the column number from the top line (that makes
      ESC 27).
\chapter[GNU Free Documentation License]{GNU Free Documentation License\\\LARGE\itshape Version 1.2, November 2002}
\label{gfdl}
\begin{multicols}{2}\small\gfdl
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup 
Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002  Free Software Foundation,
        Inc. 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307  USA
        Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
        of this license document, but changing it is not
        allowed.
\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent \end{quotation}
\setcounter{section}{-1}
\section{PREAMBLE}
\label{gfdl-0}

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook,
        or other functional and useful document `free' in
        the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom
        to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it,
        either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this
        License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get
        credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
        for modifications made by others.

This License is a kind of `copyleft', which
        means that derivative works of the document must themselves be
        free in the same sense.  It complements the GNU General Public
        License, which is a copyleft license designed for free
        software.

We have designed this License in order to use it for
        manuals for free software, because free software needs free
        documentation: a free program should come with manuals
        providing the same freedoms that the software does.  But this
        License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for
        any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it
        is published as a printed book.  We recommend this License
        principally for works whose purpose is instruction or
        reference.
\section{APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS}
\label{gfdl-1}

\label{gfdl-doc}%
This License applies to any manual or other
        work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the
        copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms
        of this License.  Such a notice grants a world-wide,
        royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work
        under the conditions stated herein.  The
        `Document', below, refers to any such manual or
        work.  Any member of the public is a licensee, and is
        addressed as `you'.  You accept the license if
        you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring
        permission under copyright law.

\label{gfdl-mod-ver}%
A `Modified Version' of the
        Document means any work containing the Document or a portion
        of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or
        translated into another language.

\label{gfdl-secnd-sect}%
A `Secondary Section' is
        a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document
        that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers
        or authors of the Document to the Document's overall
        subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that
        could fall directly within that overall subject.  (Thus, if
        the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary
        Section may not explain any mathematics.)  The relationship
        could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or
        with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical,
        ethical or political position regarding them.

\label{gfdl-inv-sect}%
The `Invariant Sections'
        are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as
        being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says
        that the Document is released under this License.  If a
        section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it
        is not allowed to be designated as Invariant.  The Document
        may contain zero Invariant Sections.  If the Document does not
        identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.

\label{gfdl-cov-text}%
The `Cover Texts' are
        certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover
        Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the
        Document is released under this License.  A Front-Cover Text
        may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most
        25 words.

\label{gfdl-transparent}%
A `Transparent' copy of
        the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a
        format whose specification is available to the general public,
        that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly
        with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels)
        generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
        drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text
        formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of
        formats suitable for input to text formatters.  A copy made in
        an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence
        of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage
        subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent.  An
        image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial
        amount of text.  A copy that is not `Transparent'
        is called `Opaque'.

Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies
        include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format,
        LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available
        DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML\index{HTML@HTML},
        PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF designed for human
        modification.  Examples of transparent image formats include
        PNG, XCF and JPG.  Opaque formats include proprietary formats
        that can be read and edited only by proprietary word
        processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing
        tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated
        HTML\index{HTML@HTML}, PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF produced by
        some word processors for output purposes only.

\label{gfdl-title-page}%
The `Title Page' means,
        for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following
        pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this
        License requires to appear in the title page. For works in
        formats which do not have any title page as such, `Title
          Page' means the text near the most prominent
        appearance of the work's title, preceding the beginning
        of the body of the text.

\label{gfdl-entitled}%
A section `Entitled XYZ'
        means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is
        precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text
        that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for
        a specific section name mentioned below, such as
        `Acknowledgements', `Dedications',
        `Endorsements', or `History'.)  To
        `Preserve the Title' of such a section when you
        modify the Document means that it remains a section
        `Entitled XYZ' according to this
        definition.

The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the
        notice which states that this License applies to the Document.
        These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by
        reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming
        warranties: any other implication that these Warranty
        Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning
        of this License.
\section{VERBATIM COPYING}
\label{gfdl-2}

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium,
        either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this
        License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying
        this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all
        copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to
        those of this License.  You may not use technical measures to
        obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the
        copies you make or distribute.  However, you may accept
        compensation in exchange for copies.  If you distribute a
        large enough number of copies you must also follow the
        conditions in section 3.
      

You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated
        above, and you may publicly display copies.
\section{COPYING IN QUANTITY}
\label{gfdl-3}

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that
        commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more
        than 100, and the Document's license notice requires
        Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry,
        clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts
        on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover.
        Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the
        publisher of these copies.  The front cover must present the
        full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
        visible.  You may add other material on the covers in
        addition.  Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long
        as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these
        conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other
        respects.

If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous
        to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many
        as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest
        onto adjacent pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document
        numbering more than 100, you must either include a
        machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy,
        or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network
        location from which the general network-using public has
        access to download using public-standard network protocols a
        complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added
        material.  If you use the latter option, you must take
        reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of
        Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent
        copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until
        at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque
        copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
        edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the
        authors of the Document well before redistributing any large
        number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an
        updated version of the Document.
\section{MODIFICATIONS}
\label{gfdl-4}

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the
        Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above,
        provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely
        this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of
        the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of
        the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it.  In
        addition, you must do these things in the Modified
        Version:
\begin{enumerate}\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}\item Use in the Title Page (and on the covers,
            if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and
            from those of previous versions (which should, if there
            were any, be listed in the History section of the
            Document).  You may use the same title as a previous
            version if the original publisher of that version gives
            permission.
          
\item List on the Title Page, as authors, one or
            more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the
            modifications in the Modified Version, together with at
            least five of the principal authors of the Document (all
            of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
            unless they release you from this requirement.
          
\item State on the Title page the name of the
            publisher of the Modified Version, as the
            publisher.
\item Preserve all the copyright notices of the
            Document.
          
\item Add an appropriate copyright notice for
            your modifications adjacent to the other copyright
            notices.
          
\item Include, immediately after the copyright
            notices, a license notice giving the public permission to
            use the Modified Version under the terms of this License,
            in the form shown in the Addendum (\S\thinspace\ref{gfdl-addendum}) below.
          
\item Preserve in that license notice the full
            lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given
            in the Document's license
            notice.
\item Include an unaltered copy of this License.
          
\item Preserve the section Entitled
            `History', Preserve its Title, and add to it
            an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
            publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title
            Page.  If there is no section Entitled
            `History' in the Document, create one stating
            the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
            given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the
            Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.
          
\item Preserve the network location, if any,
            given in the Document for public access to a Transparent
            copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations
            given in the Document for previous versions it was based
            on.  These may be placed in the `History'
            section.  You may omit a network location for a work that
            was published at least four years before the Document
            itself, or if the original publisher of the version it
            refers to gives permission.
          
\item For any section Entitled
            `Acknowledgements' or
            `Dedications', Preserve the Title of the
            section, and preserve in the section all the substance and
            tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or
            dedications given therein.
          
\item Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the
            Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles.
            Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part
            of the section titles.
          
\item Delete any section Entitled
            `Endorsements'. Such a section may not be
            included in the Modified Version.
          
\item Do not retitle any existing section to be
            Entitled `Endorsements' or to conflict in
            title with any Invariant Section.
          
\item Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
          
\end{enumerate}

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections
        or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain
        no material copied from the Document, you may at your option
        designate some or all of these sections as invariant.  To do
        this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in
        the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must
        be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled
        `Endorsements', provided it contains nothing but
        endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties--for
        example, statements of peer review or that the text has been
        approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of
        a standard.

You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover
        Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to
        the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version.
        Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover
        Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one
        entity.  If the Document already includes a cover text for the
        same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by
        the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add
        another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
        permission from the previous publisher that added the old
        one.

The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by
        this License give permission to use their names for publicity
        for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified
        Version.
\section{COMBINING DOCUMENTS}
\label{gfdl-5}

You may combine the Document with other documents released
        under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 (\S\thinspace\ref{gfdl-4}) above for modified
        versions, provided that you include in the combination all of
        the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents,
        unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your
        combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all
        their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this
        License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be
        replaced with a single copy.  If there are multiple Invariant
        Sections with the same name but different contents, make the
        title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it,
        in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher
        of that section if known, or else a unique number.  Make the
        same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant
        Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled
        `History' in the various original documents,
        forming one section Entitled `History'; likewise
        combine any sections Entitled `Acknowledgements',
        and any sections Entitled `Dedications'.  You
        must delete all sections Entitled
        `Endorsements'.
\section{COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS}
\label{gfdl-6}

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and
        other documents released under this License, and replace the
        individual copies of this License in the various documents
        with a single copy that is included in the collection,
        provided that you follow the rules of this License for
        verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other
        respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection,
        and distribute it individually under this License, provided
        you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document,
        and follow this License in all other respects regarding
        verbatim copying of that document.
\section{AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT
        WORKS}
\label{gfdl-7}

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with
        other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a
        volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an
        `aggregate' if the copyright resulting from the
        compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the
        compilation's users beyond what the individual works
        permit.  When the Document is included an aggregate, this
        License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate
        which are not themselves derivative works of the
        Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable
        to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less
        than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's
        Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document
        within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers
        if the Document is in electronic form.  Otherwise they must
        appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
        aggregate.
\section{TRANSLATION}
\label{gfdl-8}

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you
        may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of
        section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations
        requires special permission from their copyright holders, but
        you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections
        in addition to the original versions of these Invariant
        Sections.  You may include a translation of this License, and
        all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty
        Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original
        English version of this License and the original versions of
        those notices and disclaimers.  In case of a disagreement
        between the translation and the original version of this
        License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
        prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled
        `Acknowledgements', `Dedications',
        or `History', the requirement (section 4) to
        Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing
        the actual title.
\section{TERMINATION}
\label{gfdl-9}

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the
        Document except as expressly provided for under this License.
        Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute
        the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your
        rights under this License.  However, parties who have received
        copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have
        their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in
        full compliance.
\section{FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS
        LICENSE}
\label{gfdl-10}

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised
        versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to
        time.  Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the
        present version, but may differ in detail to address new
        problems or concerns.  See
        http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing
        version number.  If the Document specifies that a particular
        numbered version of this License `or any later
          version' applies to it, you have the option of
        following the terms and conditions either of that specified
        version or of any later version that has been published (not
        as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.  If the Document
        does not specify a version number of this License, you may
        choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free
        Software Foundation.
\section{ADDENDUM: How to use this License
        for your documents}
\label{gfdl-addendum}

To use this License in a document you have written,
        include a copy of the License in the document and put the
        following copyright and license notices just after the title
        page:
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup 

          Copyright (c)  YEAR  YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to
          copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms
          of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any
          later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
          with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
          Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the
          section entitled `GNU Free Documentation
            License'.
        
\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent \end{quotation}

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and
        Back-Cover Texts, replace the
        `with\dots Texts.' line with this:
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup 

          with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with
          the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover
          Texts being LIST.
        
\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent \end{quotation}

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or
        some other combination of the three, merge those two
        alternatives to suit the situation.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program
        code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under
        your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General
        Public License, to permit their use in free software.

\end{multicols}
\renewcommand{\bibname}{References}
\bibliography{beginlatex}
\bibliographystyle{jurabib}
\begin{VerbatimOut}{beginlatex.bib}
@book{mathguide,
  juraauthor = {AMS},
  author = {{}},
  title = {{Short Math Guide for \LaTeX{}}},
  juratitle = {Short Math Guide},
  publisher = {AMS},
  address = {Providence, RI},
  url = {http://www.ams.org/tex/short-math-guide.html},
  year = {2001},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{fontname,
  author = {Karl Berry},
  title = {{Fontname: Filenames for \TeX{} fonts}},
  url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/fontname/},
  organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
  address = {Portland, OR},
  year = {June 2001},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{bull,
  author = {RJ Bull},
  title = {{Accounting in Business}},
  publisher = {Butterworths},
  address = {London},
  year = {1972},
  isbn = {0-406-70651-4},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{teiguide,
  author = {Lou Burnard and Michael Sperberg-McQueen},
  title = {{Guidelines for the Text Encoding Initiative}},
  juratitle = {TEI Guidelines},
  organisation = {OUP},
  address = {Oxford},
  year = {1995},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{davy,
  author = {William Davy},
  title = {{A System of Divinity}},
  publisher = {Published by the author},
  address = {Lustleigh, Devon},
  year = {1806},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{gentle,
  author = {Michael Doob},
  title = {{A Gentle Introduction to \TeX{}: A Manual for Self-Study}},
  juratitle = {Gentle Intro},
  organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
  address = {Portland, OR},
  year = {2002},
  url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/gentle/},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{bovary,
  author = {Gustave Flaubert},
  title = {{Madame Bovary}},
  address = {Paris},
  year = {1857},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{htmlbook,
  author = {Peter Flynn},
  title = {{The HTML Handbook}},
  juratitle = {The HTML Handbook},
  publisher = {International Thompson Computer
          Press},
  address = {London},
  isbn = {1-85032-205-8},
  year = {1995},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{sgmltools,
  author = {Peter Flynn},
  title = {{Understanding SGML and XML Tools}},
  juratitle = {SGML \amp  XML Tools},
  publisher = {Kluwer},
  address = {Boston},
  isbn = {0-7923-8169-6},
  year = {1998},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{fg,
  author = {John Fothergill},
  title = {{An Innkeeper's Diary}},
  publisher = {Penguin},
  address = {London},
  edition = {3rd},
  year = {1929},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{companion,
  author = {Frank Mittelbach and Michel Goossens and Johannes Braams and David Carlisle and Chris Rowley},
  title = {{The \LaTeX{} Companion}},
  juratitle = {Companion},
  publisher = {Addison-Wesley/Pearson Education},
  address = {Boston, MA},
  edition = {2},
  isbn = {0-201-36299-6},
  year = {2004},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{graphicscomp,
  author = {Michel Goossens and Sebastian Rahtz and Frank Mittelbach},
  title = {{The \LaTeX{} Graphics Companion}},
  juratitle = {Graphics Companion},
  publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
  address = {Reading, MA},
  isbn = {0-201-85469-4},
  year = {1997},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{webcomp,
  author = {Michel Goossens and Sebastian Rahtz and Ross Moore and Bob Sutor},
  title = {{The \LaTeX{} Web Companion}},
  juratitle = {Web Companion},
  publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
  address = {Reading, MA},
  isbn = {0-201-43311-7},
  year = {1999},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@article{goreham-ctt,
  author = {Anthony Goreham},
  title = {{Re: Installing a new font: PFM, PFB}},
  juratitle = {Installing a new font},
  journal = {\texttt{comp.text.tex}},
  number = {m3r8qj42o3.fsf@micawber.queens.ox.ac.uk},
  pages = {(all pages)},
  year = {28 November 2001},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@article{heller,
  author = {Robert Heller},
  title = {{New To \LaTeX{}\dots Unlearning Bad Habits}},
  juratitle = {Bad habits},
  journal = {\texttt{comp.text.tex}},
  number = {MPG.18d82140d65ddc5898968c@news.earthlink.net},
  pages = {(all pages)},
  year = {11 March 2003},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{fontinst,
  author = {Alan Jeffrey and Rowland McDonnell},
  title = {{Font installation software for \TeX{}}},
  juratitle = {Fontinst},
  url = {http://www.tex.ac.uk/tex-archive/fonts/utilities/fontinst/},
  organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
  year = {30 June 1998},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{aocs,
  author = {Donald Ervin Knuth},
  title = {{The Art of Computer Programming}},
  publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
  address = {Reading, MA},
  edition = {2nd},
  volume = {1},
  isbn = {0-201-89685-0},
  year = {1980},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{latexbook,
  author = {Leslie Lamport},
  title = {{\LaTeX{}: A Document Preparation System}},
  publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
  address = {Reading, MA},
  isbn = {0-201-52983-1},
  edition = {2nd},
  year = {1994},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{macnamara,
  author = {Matthew {Mac Namara}},
  title = {{La Textualisation de \emph{Madame
          Bovary}}},
  publisher = {Rodopi},
  address = {Amsterdam},
  year = {2003},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{lshort,
  author = {Tobias Oetiker and Hubert Partl and Irene Hyna and Elisabeth Schlegl},
  title = {{The (Not So) Short Guide to \LaTeXe{}: \LaTeXe{} in 131 Minutes}},
  juratitle = {Short Guide},
  organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
  url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/lshort/},
  year = {2001},
  edition = {3.2},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{symbol-list,
  author = {Scott Pakin},
  title = {{A comprehensive list of symbols in \TeX{}}},
  juratitle = {Symbol list},
  organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
  url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/symbols/comprehensive/},
  year = {2002},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{begin,
  juraauthor = {TUG},
  author = {{}},
  title = {{Getting Started with \TeX{}, \LaTeX{}, and friends}},
  juratitle = {Getting Started},
  organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
  address = {Portland, OR},
  url = {http://www.tug.org/begin.html},
  year = {November 2003},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{imported,
  author = {Keith Reckdahl},
  title = {{Using imported graphics in \LaTeXe{}}},
  juratitle = {Imported graphics},
  organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
  url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/epslatex.pdf/},
  year = {1997},
  edition = {2.0},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@incollection{tain,
  author = {{}},
  title = {{Táin bó Cúailnge}},
  pages = {55},
  booktitle = {Leabhar na h-Uidhri},
  publisher = {Royal Irish Academy},
  address = {Dublin},
  year = {1100},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@article{varmints,
  author = {Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings},
  title = {{Varmints}},
  journal = {Scribner's Magazine},
  year = {1936},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{ryder,
  author = {John Ryder},
  title = {{Printing for Pleasure}},
  publisher = {Bodley Head},
  address = {London},
  isbn = {0-370-10443-9},
  year = {1976},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{xmlfaq,
  author = {Peter Flynn},
  title = {{The XML FAQ}},
  organisation = {University College Cork},
  address = {Cork, Ireland},
  url = {http://www.ucc.ie/xml/},
  year = {January 2005},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{gnufdl,
  juraauthor = {FSF},
  author = {{}},
  title = {{The GNU Free Documentation License}},
  juratitle = {GNU FDL},
  organisation = {Free Software Foundation},
  address = {Boston, MA},
  url = {http://www.fsf.org/copyleft/fdl.html},
  year = {2003/02/10
        23:42:49},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@proceedings{tugboat,
  editor = {Barbara Beeton},
  title = {{TUGboat}},
  publisher = {\TeX{} Users Group},
  address = {Portland, OR},
  issn = {0896-3207},
  year = {Since 1980},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@proceedings{practex,
  author = {Lance Carnes and Karl Berry},
  title = {{The Prac\TeX{} Journal}},
  publisher = {\TeX{} Users Group},
  address = {Portland, OR},
  url = {http://www.tug.org/pracjourn/},
  year = {2004},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@proceedings{wired,
  editor = {Chris Anderson},
  title = {{WIRED}},
  publisher = {Cond\'e Nast},
  address = {San Francisco, CA},
  issn = {1059-1028},
  year = {1993--},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{mathwrite,
  author = {Donald E Knuth and Tracey Larrabee and Paul M Roberts},
  title = {{Mathematical Writing}},
  publisher = {Mathematical Association of America},
  address = {Washington, DC},
  series = {MAA Notes 14},
  isbn = {0-88385-063-X},
  year = {1989},
  comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
\end{VerbatimOut}
\renewcommand{\indexname}{Index}
\clearpage\section*{\indexname}

The same fonts are used here as in the text of the book
      (see the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{symbols}) to distinguish between different
      meanings:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}ll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Notation}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}&Acronyms (small caps in some typefaces)\\
\command{command}&\LaTeX{} control sequences (monospace font)\\
{\fontseries{b}\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}term}&Defining instance of a specialist term (bold
              italics)\\
\product{product}&program or product name (italics)\\
\env{environment}&\LaTeX{} environment (sans-serif bold)\\
\package{package}&\LaTeX{} package (sans-serif; all available from
              CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN})\\
\opt{options}, \counter{variables}&options and variables (oblique)\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
In the online version, the entries below are all hyperlinked to
      their source: for clarity the stylesheet recommends retaining
      the traditional blue colour but removing the underlining which
      most browsers use to indicate a link.

Page numbers in {\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}bold type}
      indicate the defining instance.
\par\parfillskip=0pt plus.5fil
\multicolsep=1.5pc\printindex
\end{document}
